{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T11:28:08Z","timestamp":1764588488084,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]],"date-time":"2024-01-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014188","name":"Ministry of Science and ICT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022R1F1A1068690","NRF-2018-Global Ph.D. Fellowship Program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022R1F1A1068690","NRF-2018-Global Ph.D. Fellowship Program"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014188","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022R1F1A1068690","NRF-2018-Global Ph.D. Fellowship Program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022R1F1A1068690","NRF-2018-Global Ph.D. Fellowship Program"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>CubeSats have emerged as cost-effective platforms for biological research in low Earth orbit (LEO). However, they have traditionally been limited to optical absorbance sensors for studying microbial growth. This work has made improvements to the sensing capabilities of these small satellites by incorporating electrochemical ion-selective pH and pNa sensors with optical absorbance sensors to enrich biological experimentation and greatly expand the capabilities of these payloads. We have designed, built, and tested a multi-modal multi-array electrochemical-optical sensor module and its ancillary systems, including a fluidic card and an on-board payload computer with custom firmware. Laboratory tests showed that the module could endure high flow rates (1 mL\/min) without leakage, and the 27-well, 81-electrode sensor card accurately detected pH (71.0 mV\/pH), sodium ion concentration (75.2 mV\/pNa), and absorbance (0.067 AU), with the sensors demonstrating precise linear responses (R2 \u2248 0.99) in various test solutions. The successful development and integration of this technology conclude that CubeSat bio-payloads are now poised for more complex and detailed investigations of biological phenomena in space, marking a significant enhancement of small-satellite research capabilities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24010265","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]],"date-time":"2024-01-02T06:04:09Z","timestamp":1704175449000},"page":"265","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Multi-Modal Multi-Array Electrochemical and Optical Sensor Suite for a Biological CubeSat Payload"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6066-2872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saeyoung","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3931-0105","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanghyun","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2141-9452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James Jungho","family":"Pak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"California Polytechnic State (2020). The CubeSat Program, Cal Poly. Available online: https:\/\/static1.squarespace.com\/static\/5418c831e4b0fa4ecac1bacd\/t\/62193b7fc9e72e0053f00910\/1645820809779\/CDS+REV14_1+2022-02-09.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zea, L., Maria, S.R.S., and Ricco, A.J. (2021). CubeSats for Microbiology and Astrobiology Research, Elsevier Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-817884-3.00007-2"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2021.11.017","article-title":"Biomedical payloads: A maturing application for CubeSats","volume":"191","author":"Robson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Korsmeyer, D. (2015, January 17). CubeSats and Science Return CubeSats (aka canisterized Nanosats). Proceedings of the National Academies\u2019 Meeting on Achieving Science Goals with CubeSats, Virtual."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Cullen, D.C., Longley, J., Kingston, J., Lee, D., Black, M., Pearson, D., Waring, C., and Pink, R. (2016, January 24\u201325). BAMMsat\u2014A platform for beyond LEO space environments studies on biological systems in CubeSats and CubeSat-like payloads. Proceedings of the 5th Interplanetary CubeSat workshop (iCubeSat), Oxford, UK."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paerosci.2016.11.002","article-title":"CubeSat evolution: Analyzing CubeSat capabilities for conducting science missions","volume":"88","author":"Poghosyan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Aerosp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Hunter, R., and Korsmeyer, D. (2023, December 21). A Review of NASA Ames CubeSat Program, Available online: https:\/\/ntrs.nasa.gov\/archive\/nasa\/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov\/20160007401.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2018.08.048","article-title":"NASA\u2019s CubeSat Launch Initiative: Enabling broad access to space","volume":"157","author":"Crusan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mapstone, L.J., Leite, M.N., Purton, S., Crawford, I.A., and Dartnell, L. (2022). Cyanobacteria and microalgae in supporting human habitation on Mars. Biotechnol. Adv., 59.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2022.107946"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Belz, S., Helisch, H., Keppler, J., and Detrell, G. (2016, January 5). Microalgae cultivation in space for future exploration missions: Results of the preparatory activities for a spaceflight experiment on the International Space Station ISS. Proceedings of the International Astronautical Congress, IAC, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.algal.2021.102258","article-title":"Microalgae cultivation for space exploration: Assessing the potential for a new generation of waste to human life-support system for long duration space travel and planetary human habitation","volume":"55","author":"Revellame","year":"2021","journal-title":"Algal Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1038\/s41550-018-0438-8","article-title":"On the verge of an astronomy CubeSat revolution","volume":"2","author":"Shkolnik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Astron."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Kitts, C., Ronzano, K., Rasay, R., Mas, I., Williams, P., Mahacek, P., Minelli, G., Hines, J., Agasid, E., and Friedericks, C. (2007, January 11\u201314). Flight Results from the GeneSat-1 Biological Microsatellite Mission. Proceedings of the 2007 AIAA Small Satellite Conference, Logan, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Minelli, G., Kitts, C., Ronzano, K., Beasley, C., Rasay, R., Mas, I., Williams, P., Mahacek, P., Shepard, J., and Acain, J. (2007, January 11\u201314). Extended Life Flight Results from the GeneSat-1 Biological Microsatellite Mission. Proceedings of the USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Kitts, C., Hines, J., Agasid, E., Ricco, A., Yost, B., Ronzano, K., and Puig-Suari, J. (2006, January 14\u201317). The GeneSat-1 Microsatellite Mission: A Challenge in Small Satellite Design. Proceedings of the AIAA\/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Kitts, C., Ronzano, K., Rasay, R., Mas, I., Acain, J., Neumann, M., Bica, L., Mahacek, P., Minelli, G., and Beck, E. (2009, January 10\u201313). Initial Flight Results from the PharmaSat Biological Microsatellite Mission. Proceedings of the 23nd Annual AIAA\/USU Conf on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ricco, A., Parra, M., Niesel, D., McGinnis, M., Ly, D., Kudlicki, A., Hines, J., Piccini, M., Timucin, L., and Beasley, C. (2010, January 6\u201310). Pharmasat: Drug Dose Dependence Results from An Autonomous Microsystem-Based Small Satellite in Low Earth Orbit. Proceedings of the 2010 Solid-State, Actuators, and Microsystems Workshop Technical Digest, Hilton Head Island, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.31438\/trf.hh2010.31"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Becker, H., and Gray, B.L. (2011, January 14). PharmaSat: Drug dose response in microgravity from a free-flying integrated biofluidic\/optical culture-and-analysis satellite. Proceedings of the Microfluidics, BioMEMS, and Medical Microsystems IX, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2012.09.009","article-title":"The O\/OREOS mission\u2014Astrobiology in low Earth orbit","volume":"93","author":"Ehrenfreund","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Minelli, G., Ricco, A., Beasley, C., and Hines, J. (2010, January 9\u201312). O\/OREOS Nanosatellite: A Multi-Payload Technology Demonstration. In Proceedings of 24th AIAAl\/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1089\/ast.2012.0861","article-title":"The O\/OREOS Mission: First Science Data from the Space Environment Viability of Organics (SEVO) Payload","volume":"12","author":"Mattioda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Astrobiology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1089\/ast.2011.0714","article-title":"The O\/OREOS Mission: First Science Data from the Space Environment Survivability of Living Organisms (SESLO) Payload","volume":"11","author":"Nicholson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Astrobiology"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Padgen, M. (2017, January 24). EcAMSat and BioSentinel: Autonomous Bio Nanosatellites Addressing Strategic Knowledge Gaps for Manned Spaceflight Beyond LEO. Proceedings of the SUNY Polytechnic Institute (College of Nanoscale Science + Engineering) CNSE Colloquium Series, Albany, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lssr.2019.10.007","article-title":"EcAMSat spaceflight measurements of the role of \u03c3s in antibiotic resistance of stationary phase Escherichia coli in microgravity","volume":"24","author":"Padgen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Life Sci. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2020.02.031","article-title":"The EcAMSat fluidic system to study antibiotic resistance in low earth orbit: Development and lessons learned from space flight","volume":"173","author":"Padgen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Hanel, B., Chartres, J., and Sanchez, H. (2023, December 21). BioSentinel\u2014A Deep Space Radiation BioSensor Mission. Available online: http:\/\/mstl.atl.calpoly.edu\/~workshop\/archive\/2017\/Spring\/Day%201\/Session%203\/2_RobertHanel.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Santa Maria, S.R., Marina, D.B., Parra, M.P., Boone, T.D., Tan, M., Ricco, A.J., Straume, T.N., Lusby, T.C., Harkness, T., and Reiss-Bubenheim, D. (2019, January 23\u201326). BioSentinel: Developing a space radiation biosensor Santa. Proceedings of the American Society for Gravitational and Space Research Conference, Pasadena, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1089\/ast.2019.2068","article-title":"BioSentinel: A Biological CubeSat for Deep Space Exploration","volume":"23","author":"Tieze","year":"2023","journal-title":"Astrobiology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ricco, A.J., Hanel, R., Bhattacharya, S., Boone, T., Tan, M., Mousavi, A., Padgen, M., Gentry, D., Rademacher, A., and Schooley, A. (2016, January 5\u20139). The biosentinel bioanalytical microsystem: Characterizing DNA radiation damage in living organisms beyond earth orbit. Proceedings of the 2016 Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Workshop, Hilton Head Island, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.31438\/trf.hh2016.95"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2019.2953760","article-title":"BioSentinel: A 6U Nanosatellite for Deep-Space Biological Science","volume":"35","author":"Ricco","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1039\/C6LC01370H","article-title":"An autonomous lab on a chip for space flight calibration of gravity-induced transcellular calcium polarization in single-cell fern spores","volume":"17","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab. Chip."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lssr.2014.09.004","article-title":"Biological system development for GraviSat: A new platform for studying photosynthesis and microalgae in space","volume":"3","author":"Fleming","year":"2014","journal-title":"Life Sci. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2023, November 11). SporeSat 1, 2\u2014Gunter\u2019s Space Page. Available online: https:\/\/space.skyrocket.de\/doc_sdat\/sporesat.htm."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cypionka, H., and Reese, J.O. (2021). Recording and Simulating Proton-Related Metabolism in Bacterial Cell Suspensions. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.654065"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10522","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.2c13271","article-title":"Sodium Dynamics in the Cellular Environment","volume":"145","author":"Yin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1038\/s41570-017-0024","article-title":"The ins and outs of microorganism\u2013electrode electron transfer reactions","volume":"1","author":"Kumar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2050-0416.1976.tb03731.x","article-title":"Organic Acid Metabolism of Yeasts During Fermentation of Alcoholic Beverages\u2014A Review","volume":"82","author":"Whiting","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Inst. Brew."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weiskirchen, S., Schr\u00f6der, S.K., Buhl, E.M., and Weiskirchen, R. (2023). A Beginner\u2019s Guide to Cell Culture: Practical Advice for Preventing Needless Problems. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12050682"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Ryan, J. (2002). Understanding and Managing Cell Culture Contamination, Corning Incorporated. Available online: https:\/\/safety.fsu.edu\/safety_manual\/supporting_docs\/Understanding%20and%20Managing%20Cell%20Culture%20Contamination.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazzara, F., Patella, B., D\u2019agostino, C., Bruno, M.G., Carbone, S., Lopresti, F., Aiello, G., Torino, C., Vilasi, A., and O\u2019riordan, A. (2021). Pani-based wearable electrochemical sensor for ph sweat monitoring. Chemosensors, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors9070169"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavel, I.A., Lakard, S., and Lakard, B. (2022). Flexible Sensors Based on Conductive Polymers. Chemosensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors10030097"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cho, S.K., and Cho, W.J. (2021). Highly sensitive and selective sodium ion sensor based on silicon nanowire dual gate field-effect transistor. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21124213"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, H.-R., Kim, Y.-S., Kwon, S., Mahmood, M., Kwon, Y.-T., Lee, Y., Lee, S.M., and Yeo, W.-H. (2020). Wireless, flexible, ion-selective electrode system for selective and repeatable detection of sodium. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113297"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Hubei KENTO Electronic Co., Ltd. (2023, December 21). KT-0603R Specification. Available online: https:\/\/datasheet.lcsc.com\/lcsc\/1810231112_Hubei-KENTO-Elec-KT-0603R_C2286.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Nanyang Senba Optical & Electronic Co., Ltd. (2023, December 21). GL5537 LDR Sensor Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/www.kth.se\/social\/files\/54ef17dbf27654753f437c56\/GL5537.pdf."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1007\/s10098-016-1144-9","article-title":"Eco-friendly process for soft drink industries wastewater reuse as growth medium for Saccharomyces cerevisiae production","volume":"18","author":"Kasmi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clean Technol. Environ. Policy"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/1\/265\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:38:20Z","timestamp":1760103500000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/1\/265"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24010265"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24010265","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]]}}}