{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T17:09:48Z","timestamp":1780938588103,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]],"date-time":"2024-01-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704412800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) can be life threatening and have chronic impacts on patients and society. Timely diagnosis and treatment are imperative to prevent deterioration. Conventional imaging modalities, such as Computed Tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), and Positron Emission Tomography (PET), are expensive and not readily accessible to patients. Microwave sensing and imaging (MSI) systems are promising tools for monitoring pathological changes, namely the lateral ventricle enlargement associated with ND, in a non-invasive and convenient way. This paper presents a dual-planar monopole antenna-based remote sensing system for ND monitoring. First, planar monopole antennas were designed using the simulation software CST Studio Suite. The antenna analysis was carried out regarding the reflection coefficient, gain, radiation pattern, time domain characterization, E-field distribution, and Specific Absorption Rate (SAR). The designed antennas were then integrated with a controlling circuit as a remote sensing system. The system was experimentally validated on brain phantoms using a vector network analyzer and a laptop. The collected reflection coefficient data were processed using a radar-based imaging algorithm to reconstruct images indicating brain abnormality in ND. The results suggest that the system could serve as a low-cost and efficient tool for long-term monitoring of ND, particularly in clinics and care home scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24020328","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]],"date-time":"2024-01-05T07:38:31Z","timestamp":1704440311000},"page":"328","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Dual-Planar Monopole Antenna-Based Remote Sensing System for Microwave Medical Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Minghui","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asad","family":"Riaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0204-0626","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Imran M.","family":"Saied","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zain","family":"Shami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tughrul","family":"Arslan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)01124-1","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"388","author":"Scheltens","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2015.09.069","article-title":"The prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"190","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1778","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e31828726f5","article-title":"Alzheimer disease in the United States (2010\u20132050) estimated using the 2010 census","volume":"80","author":"Hebert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181c3f293","article-title":"Age, Alzheimer disease, and brain structure","volume":"73","author":"Raji","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2016.01.002","article-title":"Brain atrophy in Alzheimer\u2019s disease and aging","volume":"30","author":"Pini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2443","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awn146","article-title":"Ventricular enlargement as a possible measure of Alzheimer\u2019s disease progression validated using the Alzheimer\u2019s disease neuroimaging initiative database","volume":"131","author":"Nestor","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0b013e3182163b62","article-title":"Hippocampal atrophy and ventricular enlargement in normal aging, mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"26","author":"Apostolova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a006213","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a006213","article-title":"Brain imaging in Alzheimer disease","volume":"2","author":"Johnson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"347","article-title":"Neuroimaging in neurodegenerative dementias","volume":"Volume 32","author":"McGinnis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Seminars in Neurology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624330","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.624330","article-title":"PET neuroimaging of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Radiotracers and their utility in clinical research","volume":"13","author":"Bao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2015.2432137","article-title":"On the opportunities and challenges in microwave medical sensing and imaging","volume":"62","author":"Chandra","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3021","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2009.0092","article-title":"Microwave tomography: Review of the progress towards clinical applications","volume":"367","author":"Semenov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1109\/JERM.2022.3227724","article-title":"Stroke Diagnosis Using Microwave Techniques: Review of Systems and Algorithms","volume":"7","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Electromagn. Microwaves Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1973.9132","article-title":"Possible use of microwaves in the management of lung disease","volume":"61","author":"Susskind","year":"1973","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1109\/MMM.2020.2971375","article-title":"Advances in microwave near-field imaging: Prototypes, systems, and applications","volume":"21","author":"Shao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Microw. Mag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2580","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2018.2809541","article-title":"Microwave breast imaging: Clinical advances and remaining challenges","volume":"65","author":"Moloney","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1049\/el.2015.0230","article-title":"Lung cancer detection using frequency-domain microwave imaging","volume":"51","author":"Zamani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1136\/neurintsurg-2016-012699","article-title":"Prehospital care delivery and triage of stroke with emergent large vessel occlusion (ELVO): Report of the Standards and Guidelines Committee of the Society of Neurointerventional Surgery","volume":"9","author":"Pride","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurointerventional Surg."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2017.1287956","article-title":"Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to detect traumatic intracranial haematoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"31","author":"Brogan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2880","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2021.3084313","article-title":"Flexible electromagnetic cap for three-dimensional electromagnetic head imaging","volume":"68","author":"Alqadami","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1109\/JERM.2019.2926163","article-title":"Noninvasive wearable RF device towards monitoring brain atrophy and lateral ventricle enlargement","volume":"4","author":"Saied","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE J. Electromagn. RF Microwaves Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1109\/TBCAS.2019.2951500","article-title":"Integrated flexible hybrid silicone-textile dual-resonant sensors and switching circuit for wearable neurodegeneration monitoring systems","volume":"13","author":"Saied","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1109\/TBCAS.2023.3282350","article-title":"Design and Evaluation of Wearable Multimodal RF Sensing System for Vascular Dementia Detection","volume":"17","author":"Anwar","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2013.2277562","article-title":"Microwave system for head imaging","volume":"63","author":"Mohammed","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1826","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2014.2342669","article-title":"Microwave system to detect traumatic brain injuries using compact unidirectional antenna and wideband transceiver with verification on realistic head phantom","volume":"62","author":"Mobashsher","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Balanis, C.A. (2016). Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Balanis, C.A. (2011). Modern Antenna Handbook, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mumtaz, S., Rana, J.N., Choi, E.H., and Han, I. (2022). Microwave radiation and the brain: Mechanisms, current status, and future prospects. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23169288"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2019). IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields, 0 Hz to 300 GHz (Standard No. IEEE Std C95.1-2019 (Revision of IEEE Std C95.1-2005\/Incorporates IEEE Std C95.1-2019\/Cor 1-2019)). Available online: https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/8859679."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S8","DOI":"10.1002\/tee.22036","article-title":"Broadband complex dielectric constants of water and sodium chloride aqueous solutions with different DC conductivities","volume":"9","author":"Midi","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEJ Trans. Electr. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1690","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2003.815446","article-title":"Microwave imaging via space-time beamforming for early detection of breast cancer","volume":"51","author":"Bond","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/328\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:40:45Z","timestamp":1760103645000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/328"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24020328"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24020328","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]]}}}