{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T15:23:52Z","timestamp":1778167432973,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]],"date-time":"2024-01-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704412800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Drowning poses a significant threat, resulting in unexpected injuries and fatalities. To promote water sports activities, it is crucial to develop surveillance systems that enhance safety around pools and waterways. This paper presents an overview of recent advancements in drowning detection, with a specific focus on image processing and sensor-based methods. Furthermore, the potential of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning algorithms (MLAs), and robotics technology in this field is explored. The review examines the technological challenges, benefits, and drawbacks associated with these approaches. The findings reveal that image processing and sensor-based technologies are the most effective approaches for drowning detection systems. However, the image-processing approach requires substantial resources and sophisticated MLAs, making it costly and complex to implement. Conversely, sensor-based approaches offer practical, cost-effective, and widely applicable solutions for drowning detection. These approaches involve data transmission from the swimmer\u2019s condition to the processing unit through sensing technology, utilising both wired and wireless communication channels. This paper explores the recent developments in drowning detection systems while considering costs, complexity, and practicality in selecting and implementing such systems. The assessment of various technological approaches contributes to ongoing efforts aimed at improving water safety and reducing the risks associated with drowning incidents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24020331","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]],"date-time":"2024-01-05T07:38:31Z","timestamp":1704440311000},"page":"331","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Enhancing Water Safety: Exploring Recent Technological Approaches for Drowning Detection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3921-9846","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salman","family":"Jalalifar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2637-8955","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Belford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia"}]},{"given":"Eila","family":"Erfani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Systems and Technology Management, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 1466, Australia"}]},{"given":"Amir","family":"Razmjou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Perth, WA 6027, Australia"}]},{"given":"Rouzbeh","family":"Abbassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia"}]},{"given":"Masoud","family":"Mohseni-Dargah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia"}]},{"given":"Mohsen","family":"Asadnia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2024, January 02). World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/drowning."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i83","DOI":"10.1136\/injuryprev-2019-043484","article-title":"The burden of unintentional drowning: Global, regional and national estimates of mortality from the Global Burden of Disease 2017 Study","volume":"26","author":"Franklin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inj. Prev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e019407","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-019407","article-title":"Using a retrospective cross-sectional study to analyse unintentional fatal drowning in Australia: ICD-10 coding-based methodologies verses actual deaths","volume":"7","author":"Peden","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jalalifar, S., Kashizadeh, A., Mahmood, I., Belford, A., Drake, N., Razmjou, A., and Asadnia, M. (2022). A smart multi-sensor device to detect distress in swimmers. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22031059"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Rahman, A., Peden, A.E., Ashraf, L., Ryan, D., Bhuiyan, A.-A., and Beerman, S. (2021). Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Global Public Health, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101994","DOI":"10.1016\/j.legalmed.2021.101994","article-title":"Review of washing machine-related deaths in South Korea","volume":"54","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.legalmed.2009.01.028","article-title":"Evaluation of postmortem calcium and magnesium levels in the pericardial fluid with regard to the cause of death in medicolegal autopsy","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.legalmed.2020.101783","article-title":"Characteristics of drowning deaths in an inner city river","volume":"47","author":"Stephenson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2018.07.016","article-title":"An analysis of lifejacket wear, environmental factors, and casualty activity on marine accident fatality rates","volume":"111","author":"Pitman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Eshed, E. (2024, January 02). IoT News. Available online: https:\/\/www.iottechnews.com\/news\/2015\/oct\/27\/saving-lives-iot-streamlining-search-and-rescue-efforts-using-lte-technology\/."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cepeda-Pacheco, J.C., and Domingo, M.C. (2022). Deep learning and 5G and beyond for child drowning prevention in swimming pools. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197684"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ka\u0142amajska, E., Misiurewicz, J., and Weremczuk, J. (2022). Wearable Pulse Oximeter for Swimming Pool Safety. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103823"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1076\/icsp.10.4.195.16772","article-title":"The epidemiology of drowning worldwide","volume":"10","author":"Peden","year":"2003","journal-title":"Inj. Control Saf. Promot."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tyler, M.D., Richards, D.B., Reske-Nielsen, C., Saghafi, O., Morse, E.A., Carey, R., and Jacquet, G.A. (2017). The epidemiology of drowning in low-and middle-income countries: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-017-4239-2"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2021.111137","article-title":"Epidemiology and autopsy findings of 500 drowning deaths","volume":"330","author":"Dye","year":"2022","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Australian Governmnent (2024, January 02). Royal Life Saving National Drowning Report 2020, Available online: https:\/\/www.royallifesaving.com.au\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0003\/33861\/RLS_NationalDrowningReport2020LR-FINAL.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"853","article-title":"A new definition of drowning: Towards documentation and prevention of a global public health problem","volume":"83","author":"Branche","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Watson, K., and Healthline (2024, January 02). Drowning Facts and Safety Precautions. Available online: https:\/\/www.healthline.com\/health\/dry-drowning."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Fletcher, J., and Medical News Today (2024, January 02). Available online: https:\/\/www.medicalnewstoday.com\/articles\/how-long-can-the-average-person-hold-their-breath#benefits."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199301283280407","article-title":"Drowning","volume":"328","author":"Modell","year":"1993","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Harle, L. (2024, January 02). PathologyOutlines.com. Available online: https:\/\/www.pathologyoutlines.com\/topic\/forensicsdrowning.html."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e024868","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-024868","article-title":"Understanding the full burden of drowning: A retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of fatal and non-fatal drowning in Australia","volume":"8","author":"Peden","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, W.J., Nie, S.P., Xu, H.F., Xu, Y.J., Song, X.L., Guo, Q.Z., and Zhang, Y.R. (2010). An analysis of risk factors of non-fatal drowning among children in rural areas of Guangdong Province, China: A case-control study. BMC Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-10-156"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e008444","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-008444","article-title":"Unintentional, non-fatal drowning of children: US trends and racial\/ethnic disparities","volume":"5","author":"Felton","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1097\/PEC.0000000000001232","article-title":"A review of nonfatal drowning in the pediatric-age group: A 10-year experience at a university hospital in Saudi Arabia","volume":"35","author":"Yousef","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Emerg. Care"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2018.04.014","article-title":"Epidemiological aspects of drowning and non-fatal drowning in the waters of Amsterdam","volume":"58","author":"Reijnen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Forensic Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1080\/17457300.2016.1175479","article-title":"Epidemiology of fatal and non-fatal drowning patients attended by paramedics in Victoria, Australia","volume":"24","author":"Matthews","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Inj. Control Saf. Promot."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2023, March 12). Drowning Prevention, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/drowning\/facts\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021052227","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2021-052227","article-title":"Prevention of drowning","volume":"148","author":"Denny","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2018.09.002","article-title":"Calculating the economic burden of fatal drowning in Australia","volume":"67","author":"Barnsley","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Saf. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Berzansky, D. (2024, January 02). Premier Aquatics. Available online: https:\/\/swimoc.com\/recognizing-the-quiet-signs-of-drowning\/#:~:text=Waiving%20arms%20%E2%80%93%20Don\u2019t%20look."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Ezer, O., Banin, Y., and Almog, G. (2008). Detecting and Notifying of Drowning Conditions in a Swimmer. (U.S. Patent 20090309739A1)."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lygouras, E., Santavas, N., Taitzoglou, A., Tarchanidis, K., Mitropoulos, A., and Gasteratos, A. (2019). Unsupervised Human Detection with an Embedded Vision System on a Fully Autonomous UAV for Search and Rescue Operations. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19163542"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1080\/10903127.2019.1657211","article-title":"Identification of Swimmers in Distress Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Experience at the Mont-Tremblant IRONMAN Triathlon","volume":"24","author":"Homier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prehospital Emerg. Care"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Redmon, J.C., and Farhadi, A. (2024, January 02). YOLO: Real-Time Object Detection. Available online: https:\/\/pjreddie.com\/darknet\/yolo\/."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Bochkovskiy, A. (2021, January 20\u201325). Scaled-YOLOv4: Scaling Cross Stage Partial Network. Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2021, Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yun, S., and Kim, S. (2019, January 15\u201318). Recurrent YOLO and LSTM-based IR single pedestrian tracking. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Control, Automation and Systems (ICCAS 2019), Jeju, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.23919\/ICCAS47443.2019.8971679"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Jinsong, L., Philipsen, M.P., and Moeslund, T.B. (2021, January 8\u201310). Supervised versus Self-supervised Assistant for Surveillance of Harbor Fronts. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Computer Vision Theory and Applications, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Bonderup, S., Olsson, J., Bonderup, M., and Moeslund, T.B. (2016). Proceedings of Advances in Visual Computing, Springer."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, D., Yu, L., Jin, W., Zhang, R., Feng, J., and Fu, N. (2021, January 15\u201317). An Improved Detection Method of Human Target at Sea Based on Yolov3. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics and Computer Engineering (ICCECE), Guangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCECE51280.2021.9342056"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"18","article-title":"A presentation of drowning detection system on coastal lines using image processing techniques and neural network","volume":"11","author":"Shiuuee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Inj. Violence Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eng, H.L., Toh, K.A., Kam, A.H., Wang, J., and Yau, W.Y. (2003, January 13\u201316). An automatic drowning detection surveillance system for challenging outdoor pool environments. Proceedings of the Ninth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV\u201903), Nice, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2003.1238393"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2007.913960","article-title":"DEWS: A Live Visual Surveillance System for Early Drowning Detection at Pool","volume":"18","author":"Eng","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Rooz, E., and Ben-Sira, I. (1991). Method and System for Detecting a Motionless Body in a Pool. (U.S. Patent 5043705A)."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Menoud, E. (1999). Alarm and Monitoring Device for the Presumption of Bodies in Danger in a Swimming Pool. (U.S. Patent 5886630A)."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, Y.T., Hou, T.W., Huang, Y.L., Lan, W.H., Wang, P.C., and Lai, C.T. Implementation of deep-learning-based edge computing for preventing drowning In Proceedings of the 8th IIAE International Conference on Industrial Application Engineering, Matsue, Japan, 26\u201330 March 2020.","DOI":"10.12792\/iciae2020.041"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Dalal, N., and Triggs, B. (2005, January 20\u201325). Histograms of oriented gradients for human detection. Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR\u201905), San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Dalal, N., Triggs, B., and Schmid, C. (2006). Proceedings of Computer Vision, Springer."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Gatica-Perez, D., Bengio, S., and McCowan, I. (2005, January 20\u201325). Semi-supervised adapted HMMs for unusual event detection. Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR\u201905), San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Mahadevan, V., Li, W., Bhalodia, V., and Vasconcelos, N. (1996, January 18\u201320). Anomaly detection in crowded scenes. Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Xu, D., Ricci, E., Yan, Y., Song, J., and Sebe, N. (2005). Learning Deep Representations of Appearance and Motion for Anomalous Event Detection. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasan, M., Choi, J., Neumann, J., Roy-Chowdhury, A.K., and Davis, L.S. (2016, January 27\u201330). Learning Temporal Regularity in Video Sequences. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.86"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.image.2016.06.007","article-title":"Spatial\u2013temporal convolutional neural networks for anomaly detection and localization in crowded scenes","volume":"47","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Signal Process. Image Commun."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s11760-021-01953-y","article-title":"Detection of early dangerous state in deep water of indoor swimming pool based on surveillance video","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Signal Image Video Process."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hayat, M.A., Yang, G., Iqbal, A., Saleem, A., and Mateen, M. (2019, January 16\u201317). Comprehensive and Comparative Study of Drowning Person Detection and Rescue Systems. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies (ICICT), Karachi, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICT47744.2019.9001918"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, X., Yuan, F., and Zhu, Y. (2021, January 6\u20138). Drowning Detection Based on Video Anomaly Detection. Proceedings of the Image and Graphics: 11th International Conference, ICIG 2021, Haikou, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-87361-5_57"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kam, A.H., Lu, W., and Yau, W.-Y. (2002, January 28\u201331). A Video-Based Drowning Detection System. Proceedings of the 7th European Conference on Computer Vision, Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-47979-1_20"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Li, X., and Lei, F. (2015, January 19\u201320). A Novel Camera-Based Drowning Detection Algorithm. Proceedings of the 10th Chinese Conference, Advances in Image and Graphics Technologies IGTA, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-47791-5_26"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1049\/tje2.12141","article-title":"Analysis of Novel Assistive Robotic Multi-Stage Underwater Lift Design for Swimmer Safety","volume":"2022","author":"Laxman","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Lu, W., and Tan, Y.P. (2002, January 22\u201325). A camera-based system for early detection of drowning incidents. Proceedings of the International Conference on Image Processing, Rochester, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.10.388","article-title":"Gantry robot system for preventing drowning accidents in swimming pools","volume":"46","author":"Jose","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Anderson, D.B., Barnett, J.T., Hakes, D.L., Loss, K.R., and Gormican, J.P. (2012). Above-Water Monitoring of Swimming Pools. (U.S. Patent 8237574B2)."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"38","article-title":"Anti Drowning system using remote control","volume":"1","author":"Chaudhari","year":"2016","journal-title":"IOSR J. Eng."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulkarni, A., Lakhani, K., and Lokhande, S. (2016, January 7\u20139). A sensor based low-cost drowning detection system for human life safety. Proceedings of the International Conference on Reliability, Infocom Technologies and Optimization (ICRITO) (Trends and Future Directions), Noida, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRITO.2016.7784970"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100783","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202100783","article-title":"Biomimetic ultraflexible piezoresistive flow sensor based on graphene nanosheets and PVA hydrogel","volume":"7","author":"Moradi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2022.113969","article-title":"Carbon nanofiber-reinforced Pt thin film-based airflow sensor for respiratory monitoring","volume":"347","author":"Moshizi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20210753","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2021.0753","article-title":"Polymeric piezoresistive airflow sensor to monitor respiratory patterns","volume":"18","author":"Moshizi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"100016","article-title":"Highly stretchable strain sensors based on gold thin film reinforced with carbon nanofibers","volume":"1","author":"Vahdani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44904","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c12515","article-title":"Development of ultrasensitive biomimetic auditory hair cells based on piezoresistive hydrogel nanocomposites","volume":"13","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"17","article-title":"Automated Drowning Detection and Security in Swimming Pool","volume":"4","author":"Hemalatha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"1987","article-title":"Design of a drowning rescue alert system","volume":"10","author":"John","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Eng. Technol. (IJMET)"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1870","article-title":"An Early Drowning Detection System for Internet of Things (IoT) Applications","volume":"16","author":"Ramdhan","year":"2018","journal-title":"TELKOMNIKA Telecommun. Comput. Electron. Control"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramani, J.G., Gayathri, J., Aswanth, R., and Gunasekaran, M. (2019, January 15\u201316). Automatic prevention of drowning by inflatable wrist band system. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Advanced Computing & Communication Systems (ICACCS), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICACCS.2019.8728368"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"204","article-title":"Automatic Waist Airbag Drowning Prevention System Based on Motion Information Measured by Memos Accelerometer and Pressure","volume":"3","author":"Nagalikitha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Emerg. Trends Eng. Res. (IJETER)"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shehata, A.M., Mohamed, E.M., Salem, K.L., Mohamed, A.M., Abdul Salam, M., and Gamil, M.M. (2021, January 26\u201327). A Survey of Drowning Detection Techniques. Proceedings of the International Mobile, Intelligent, and Ubiquitous Computing Conference (MIUCC), Cairo, Egypt.","DOI":"10.1109\/MIUCC52538.2021.9447677"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012042","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1436\/1\/012042","article-title":"Design of low-flow oxygen monitor and control system for respiration and SpO2 rates optimization","volume":"1436","author":"Puspitasari","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Thygerson, A. (2024, January 02). Deseret News. Available online: https:\/\/www.deseret.com\/1998\/3\/22\/19370324\/hypothermia-kills-half-of-drowning-victims."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2024, January 02). A NSW Government Website, Available online: https:\/\/www.health.nsw.gov.au\/environment\/factsheets\/Pages\/hypothermia.aspx."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"226","article-title":"Physiological studies in experimental drowning (A): Preliminary Report","volume":"39","author":"Banting","year":"1938","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6204","DOI":"10.1186\/1757-1626-0002-0000006204","article-title":"Heart rate monitored hypothermia and drowning in a 48-year-old man. survival without sequelae: A case report","volume":"2","author":"Lund","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cases J."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Hegg, J. (2024, January 02). Know the Steps to Take to Identify and Treat Low SpO2 Levels. HomeCare: 2016. Available online: https:\/\/www.homecaremag.com\/understanding-spo2-and-normal-oxygen-levels."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Lopez, S. (2011). Pulse Oximeter Fundamentals, Freescale Semiconductor, Inc."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2024, January 02). Guidelines for SpO2 Measurement; Maxim Integrated Products, Inc. Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/en\/technical-articles\/guidelines-for-spo2-measurement--maxim-integrated.html#\/."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resuscitation.2011.04.019","article-title":"Feasibility of pulse oximetry in the initial prehospital management of victims of drowning: A preliminary study","volume":"82","author":"Montenij","year":"2011","journal-title":"Resuscitation"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reddy, N.K.S., and Murty, O.P. (2015). The Essentials of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Jaypee Brothers.","DOI":"10.5005\/jp\/books\/12576"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1080\/17457300.2011.566619","article-title":"Analysis of rescue and drowning history from a lifeguarded waterpark environment","volume":"18","author":"Hunsucker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Inj. Control Saf. Promot."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER) (2024, January 02). Available online: https:\/\/www.mayoclinic.org\/diseases-conditions\/hypothermia\/symptoms-causes\/syc-20352682#:~:text=Hypothermia%20is%20a%20medical%20emergency,95%20F%20(35%20C)."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resuscitation.2014.02.024","article-title":"Association of water temperature and submersion duration and drowning outcome","volume":"85","author":"Quan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Resuscitation"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishida, Y., Hiratsuka, K., and Mizoguchi, H. (2007, January 28\u201331). Prototype of Infant Drowning Prevention System at Home with Wireless Accelerometer. Proceedings of the IEEE Sensors, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2007.4388626"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1111\/jpc.14668","article-title":"Causes of distraction leading to supervision lapses in cases of fatal drowning of children 0\u20134 years in Australia: A 15-year review","volume":"56","author":"Peden","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Paediatr. Child Health"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Davies, M.M., and Gissen, L. (2024, January 02). Daily Mail Australia. Available online: https:\/\/www.dailymail.co.uk\/femail\/article-10881937\/Mom-says-toddlers-heart-stopped-coma-drowning.html."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1186\/1757-7241-20-55","article-title":"Neurologic long term outcome after drowning in children","volume":"20","author":"Suominen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Ren, P., Zhang, C., Liu, X., Liu, P., and Ci, S. (2011). Wireless Internet, Proceedings of the 6th Internatinal ICST Conference, WICON 2011, Xi\u2019an, China, 19\u201321 October 2011, Springer."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"(2024, January 02). Safety Turtle 2.0 Pool Alarm; RJE Technologies, Inc.: Irvine, CA, USA. Available online: https:\/\/www.diycontrols.com\/p-9576-safety-turtle-20-child-immersion-poolwater-alarm-kit.aspx."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Pool & Spa Warehouse (2024, January 02). Water Patrol Child Guard\u2014Wireless Anti-Drowning Electronic Device. Available online: https:\/\/poolandspawarehouse.com.au\/water-patrol-child-guard.html."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/331\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:40:48Z","timestamp":1760103648000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/331"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24020331"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24020331","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]]}}}