{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:35:38Z","timestamp":1760142938842,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]],"date-time":"2024-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704758400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009767","name":"Heriot Watt University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Open Access\/Pure"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Open Access\/Pure"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009767","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To meet the complex and diverse demands for low-stress mechanical measurements of fabrics and other flexible materials, two integrated multidimensional force sensors with the same structure but different ranges were explored. They can support both rapid and precise low-noise, high-precision, low-cost, easy-to-use, reliable, and intelligent solutions for the complex measurement of fabric mechanics. Having analysed the mechanical relationship of the parallel beam theory, and considering the specific requirements of fabric measurement, a novel multi-dimensional force sensor is designed, capable of measuring tensile, shear, and buckling properties. Finite element analysis is used to simulate the mechanical performance of this sensor for fabric-loading\/unloading measurement, and the sensitivity of the mechanical quantity transfer, the amount of sensor deformation, the stress distribution, and the degree of inter-dimensional coupling have been investigated and verified. The basis for subsequent digital processing is achieved by a low-offset, low-temperature-drift, low-power-consumption analogue front end, 24-bit ADC circuit, and signal conditioning electronics, suitable for the measurement of fabric mechanics under low stress, which is like the end-user requirements. The sensor information channel is supported by a host microcontroller with a DSP and a floating-point processing instruction set. Information processing is performed in time-sharing with the support of a multitasking real-time operating system. The purpose of designing this sensor is to facilitate the development of a new testing instrument, which will adopt the advances of current instruments whilst eliminating their shortcomings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24020406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T07:50:48Z","timestamp":1704873048000},"page":"406","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Novel Multidimensional Tensile, Shear, and Buckling Sensor for the Measurement of Flexible Fibrous Materials"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Liang","family":"Luo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Flexible Materials, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7911-1058","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Stylios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Flexible Materials, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1080\/00405000.2014.926606","article-title":"Legacy of the Zeppelins: Defining fabrics as engineering materials","volume":"106","author":"Yousef","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Text. Inst."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"T377","DOI":"10.1080\/19447023008661529","article-title":"26\u2014The \u201chandle\u201d of cloth as a measurable quantity","volume":"21","author":"Peirce","year":"1930","journal-title":"J. Text. Inst. Trans."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"T45","DOI":"10.1080\/19447023708658809","article-title":"The geometry of cloth structure","volume":"28","author":"Peirce","year":"1937","journal-title":"J. Text. Inst."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"T44","DOI":"10.1080\/19447025808660119","article-title":"An extension of Peirce\u2019s cloth geometry to the treatment of non-circular threads","volume":"49","author":"Kemp","year":"1958","journal-title":"J. Text. Inst. Trans."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1177\/004051756103100203","article-title":"Part III: Shearing and Buckling of Various Commercial Fabrics","volume":"31","author":"Lindberg","year":"1961","journal-title":"Text. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"T596","DOI":"10.1080\/19447026508662319","article-title":"The Dependence of Fabric Drape on Bending and Shear Stiffness","volume":"56","author":"Cusick","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Text. Inst. Trans."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1177\/004051756603600405","article-title":"The Mechanical Properties of Woven Fabrics: Part III: The Buckling of Woven Fabrics","volume":"36","author":"Grosberg","year":"1966","journal-title":"Text. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Stylios, G. (1991). Textile Objective Measurement and Automation in Garment Manufacture, Ellis Horwood Ltd."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1108\/eb003007","article-title":"A New Concept in Garment Manufacture: The sewability integrated environment incorporating automated objective measurement systems","volume":"4","author":"Stylios","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Cloth. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/0957-4158(95)00021-V","article-title":"The mechatronic principles for intelligent sewing environments","volume":"5","author":"Stylios","year":"1995","journal-title":"Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"59","article-title":"Fabric objective measurement Part VI: Product development and implementation","volume":"20","author":"Postle","year":"1989","journal-title":"Text Asia"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Kawabata, S. (1975). HESC Standard of Hand Evaluation (HV standard for Men\u2019s Suiting), HESC, Textile Machinery Society of Japan."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/00405008908659184","article-title":"Fabric Performance in Clothing and Clothing Manufacture","volume":"80","author":"Kawabata","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Text. Inst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1108\/eb002968","article-title":"Objective measurement of fabric mechanical property and quality:: Its application to textile and clothing manufacturing","volume":"3","author":"Kawabata","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Cloth. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Boos, A., and Tester, D. (1994). CSIRO FAST\u2014Fabric Assurance by Simple Testing, CSIRO."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1108\/ijcst.2000.05812aaa.001","article-title":"Fabric objective measurement; FAMOUS, a new alternative to low stress measurement","volume":"12","author":"Stylios","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Cloth. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2006.07.008","article-title":"Fabric Touch Tester: Integrated evaluation of thermal\u2013mechanical sensory properties of polymeric materials","volume":"25","author":"Hu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Browzwear (2018, September 07). See Your Fabrics in True-to-Life 3D with Browzwear\u2019s new Fabric Analyzer News. Available online: https:\/\/browzwear.com\/see-fabrics-true-life-3d-browzwears-new-fabric-analyzer\/."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2023, November 18). Available online: https:\/\/optitex.com\/."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2023, November 18). Available online: https:\/\/www.clo3d.com\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00405169608688866","article-title":"Fabrics: Sensory and Mechanical Properties","volume":"26","author":"Bishop","year":"1996","journal-title":"Text. Prog."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Shishoo, R. (2000, January 27). Objective measurement of fabric handle: Dream or reality. Proceedings of the Avantex, International Symposium for High-Tech Apparel Textiles and Fashion Engineering with Innovation-Forum, Frankfurt, Germany. 15p."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Kuijpers, S., LuibleB\u00e4r, C., and Gong, H. (2023, December 14). The Measurement of Fabric Properties for Virtual Simulation\u2014A Critical Review. IEEE Standards Association, Industry Connections Report, 1-43. Article STDVA24083 978-1-5044-6497-0. Advance online publication. Available online: https:\/\/standards.ieee.org\/content\/dam\/ieeestandards\/standards\/web\/governance\/iccom\/3DBP-Measurement_of_fabric_properties.pdf."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Han, F., and Stylios, G. (2010). Modelling and Predicting Textile Behaviour, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stylios, G. (1998). Engineering, re-engineering and reverse engineering of textiles or textile genetic engineering. Int. J. Cloth. Sci. Technol., 10.","DOI":"10.1108\/ijcst.1998.05810baa.001"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-70658-8_1","article-title":"From biological macromolecules to drape of clothing: 50 years of computing for textiles","volume":"55","author":"Hearle","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stud. Comput. Intell."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1038\/138054a0","article-title":"An Introduction to the Theory of Elasticity","volume":"138","author":"Timoshenko","year":"1936","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Love, A.E.H. (1892). A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2023, December 10). Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/lit\/ds\/symlink\/ads1274.pdf?ts=1703100522365&ref_url=https%253A%252F%252Fwww.ti.com%252Fproduct%252FADS1274%253FkeyMatch%253DADS1274%2526tisearch%253Dsearch-everything%2526usecase%253DGPN-ALT."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2023, December 10). Available online: https:\/\/developer.arm.com\/Processors\/Cortex-M33."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Muir, P.F. (1990, January 9\u201311). A virtual sensor approach to robot kinematic identification: Theory and experimental implementation. Proceedings of the 1990 IEEE International Conference on Systems Engineering, Pittsburgh, PA, USA."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/406\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:43:19Z","timestamp":1760103799000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/406"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24020406"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24020406","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]}}}