{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T18:05:04Z","timestamp":1772906704059,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]],"date-time":"2024-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705449600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Military Crypto Research Center","award":["UD210027XD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UD210027XD"]}]},{"name":"Military Crypto Research Center","award":["RS-2023-00237308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-00237308"]}]},{"name":"Military Crypto Research Center","award":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"]}]},{"name":"Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA)","award":["UD210027XD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UD210027XD"]}]},{"name":"Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA)","award":["RS-2023-00237308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-00237308"]}]},{"name":"Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA)","award":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"]}]},{"name":"Agency for Defense Development (ADD)","award":["UD210027XD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UD210027XD"]}]},{"name":"Agency for Defense Development (ADD)","award":["RS-2023-00237308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-00237308"]}]},{"name":"Agency for Defense Development (ADD)","award":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and ICT","award":["UD210027XD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UD210027XD"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and ICT","award":["RS-2023-00237308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-00237308"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and ICT","award":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["UD210027XD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UD210027XD"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["RS-2023-00237308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-00237308"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"]}]},{"name":"Hongik University","award":["UD210027XD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UD210027XD"]}]},{"name":"Hongik University","award":["RS-2023-00237308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-00237308"]}]},{"name":"Hongik University","award":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2023R1A2C2006290"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the security vulnerability known as rowhammer in Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM). While DRAM offers many desirable advantages, including low latency, high density, and cost-effectiveness, rowhammer vulnerability, first identified in 2014, poses a significant threat to computing systems. Rowhammer attacks involve repetitive access to specific DRAM rows, which can cause bit flips in neighboring rows, potentially compromising system credentials, integrity, and availability. The paper discusses the various stages of rowhammer attacks, explores existing attack techniques, and examines defense strategies. It also emphasizes the importance of understanding DRAM organization and the associated security challenges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24020592","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]],"date-time":"2024-01-17T07:41:28Z","timestamp":1705477288000},"page":"592","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Rowhammer Attacks in Dynamic Random-Access Memory and Defense Methods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Dayeon","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 04066, Republic of Korea"}]},{"given":"Hyungdong","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 04066, Republic of Korea"}]},{"given":"Inguk","family":"Yeo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 04066, Republic of Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4569-2640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youn Kyu","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 04066, Republic of Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4524-2858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youngmin","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 04066, Republic of Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1191-3553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyung-Min","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4973-6815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kon-Woo","family":"Kwon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 04066, Republic of Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1145\/2678373.2665726","article-title":"Flipping bits in memory without accessing them: An experimental study of DRAM disturbance errors","volume":"42","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACM SIGARCH Comput. Archit. News"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwong, A., Genkin, D., Gruss, D., and Yarom, Y. (2020, January 18\u201321). Rambleed: Reading bits in memory without accessing them. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SP40000.2020.00020"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"71","article-title":"Exploiting the DRAM rowhammer bug to gain kernel privileges","volume":"15","author":"Seaborn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Black Hat"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Kaveh, R., Gras, B., Bosman, E., Preneel, B., Giuffrida, C., and Bos, H. (2016, January 10\u201312). Flip feng shui: Hammering a needle in the software stack. Proceedings of the 25th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 16), Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Yuan, X., Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., and Teodorescu, R. (2016, January 10\u201312). One bit flips, one cloud flops:{Cross-VM} row hammer attacks and privilege escalation. Proceedings of the 25th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 16), Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Daniel, G., Maurice, C., and Mangard, S. (2016). Detection of Intrusions and Malware, and Vulnerability Assessment: 13th International Conference, DIMVA 2016, San Sebasti\u00e1n, Spain, 7\u20138 July 2016, Springer International Publishing. Proceedings 13."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Lucian, C., Razavi, K., Giuffrida, C., and Bos, H. (2019, January 19\u201323). Exploiting correcting codes: On the effectiveness of ecc memory against rowhammer attacks. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Daniel, G., Lipp, M., Schwarz, M., Genkin, D., Juffinger, J., O\u2019Connell, S., Schoechl, W., and Yarom, Y. (2018, January 20\u201324). Another flip in the wall of rowhammer defenses. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jang, Y., Lee, J., Lee, S., and Kim, T. (2017, January 28). SGX-Bomb: Locking down the processor via Rowhammer attack. Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on System Software for Trusted Execution, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/3152701.3152709"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1145\/2954679.2872390","article-title":"ANVIL: Software-based protection against next-generation rowhammer attacks","volume":"51","author":"Birhanu","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM SIGPLAN Notices"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Zhi, Z., Cheng, Y., Wang, M., He, W., Wang, W., Nepal, S., Gao, Y., Li, K., Wang, Z., and Wu, C. (2022, January 11\u201313). {SoftTRR}: Protect Page Tables against Rowhammer Attacks using Software-only Target Row Refresh. Proceedings of the 2022 USENIX Annual Technical Conference (USENIX ATC 22), Carlsbad, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Moinuddin, Q., Rohan, A., Saileshwar, G., and Nair, P.J. (2022, January 18\u201322). Hydra: Enabling low-overhead mitigation of row-hammer at ultra-low thresholds via hybrid tracking. Proceedings of the 49th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"18","article-title":"Counter-based tree structure for row hammering mitigation in DRAM","volume":"16","author":"Mohammad","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Archit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Eojin, L., Kang, I., Lee, S., Suh, G.E., and Ahn, J.H. (2019, January 22\u201326). TWiCe: Preventing row-hammering by exploiting time window counters. Proceedings of the 46th International Symposium on Computer Architecture, Phoenix, AZ, USA."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Yeonhong, P., Kwon, W., Lee, E., Ham, T.J., Ahn, J.H., and Lee, J.W. (2020, January 17\u201321). Graphene: Strong yet lightweight row hammer protection. Proceedings of the 2020 53rd Annual IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture (MICRO), Athens, Greece."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ya\u011flik\u00e7i, A.G., Patel, M., Kim, J.S., Azizi, R., Olgun, A., Orosa, L., Hassan, H., Park, J., Kanellopoulos, K., and Shahroodi, T. (March, January 27). Blockhammer: Preventing rowhammer at low cost by blacklisting rapidly-accessed dram rows. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA), Seoul, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/HPCA51647.2021.00037"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Michele, M., Jattke, P., Solt, F., and Razavi, K. (2022, January 22\u201326). Protrr: Principled yet optimal in-dram target row refresh. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Min, Y.J., and Yang, J.-S. (2019, January 2\u20136). MRLoc: Mitigating Row-hammering based on memory Locality. Proceedings of the 56th Annual Design Automation Conference 2019, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saxena, A., Saileshwar, G., Juffinger, J., Kogler, A., Gruss, D., and Qureshi, M. (2023, January 27\u201330). PT-Guard: Integrity-Protected Page Tables to Defend Against Breakthrough Rowhammer Attacks. Proceedings of the 2023 53rd Annual IEEE\/IFIP International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks (DSN), Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/DSN58367.2023.00022"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17366","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2967217","article-title":"CAT-TWO: Counter-based adaptive tree, time window optimized for DRAM row-hammer prevention","volume":"8","author":"Ingab","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Hong, S., Kim, D., Lee, J., Oh, R., Yoo, C., Hwang, S., and Lee, J. (2023). Dsac: Low-cost rowhammer mitigation using in-dram stochastic and approximate counting algorithm. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Jaemin, K.M., Park, J., Park, Y., Doh, W., Kim, N., Ham, T.J., Lee, J.W., and Ahn, J.H. (2022, January 2\u20136). Mithril: Cooperative row hammer protection on commodity dram leveraging managed refresh. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA), Seoul, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Ferdinand, B., Davi, L., Gens, D., Liebchen, C., and Sadeghi, A.-R. (2017, January 16\u201318). {CAn\u2019t} Touch This: Software-only Mitigation against Rowhammer Attacks targeting Kernel Memory. Proceedings of the 26th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 17), Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1109\/LCA.2014.2332177","article-title":"Architectural support for mitigating row hammering in DRAM memories","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Archit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Tanj, B., Saroiu, S., Wolman, A., and Cojocar, L. (2021, January 17). Panopticon: A complete in-dram rowhammer mitigation. Proceedings of the First Workshop on DRAM Security (DRAMSec), Virtual."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Son, M., Park, H., Ahn, J., and Yoo, S. (2017, January 18\u201322). Making DRAM stronger against row hammering. Proceedings of the 54th Annual Design Automation Conference 2017, Austin, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3061639.3062281"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Carsten, B., Brasser, F., Gens, D., Liebchen, C., and Sadeghi, A.-R. (2019, January 9\u201312). Rip-rh: Preventing rowhammer-based inter-process attacks. Proceedings of the 2019 ACM Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security, Auckland, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Andrei, T., Konoth, R.K., Athanasopoulos, E., Giuffrida, C., Bos, H., and Razavi, K. (2018, January 11\u201313). Throwhammer: Rowhammer attacks over the network and defenses. Proceedings of the 2018 USENIX Annual Technical Conference (USENIX ATC 18), Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"van der Veen, V., Lindorfer, M., Fratantonio, Y., Pillai, H.P., Vigna, G., Kruegel, C., Bos, H., and Razavi, K. (2018). Detection of Intrusions and Malware, and Vulnerability Assessment: 15th International Conference, DIMVA 2018, Saclay, France, 28\u201329 June 2018, Springer International Publishing. Proceedings 15."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Konoth, R.K., Oliverio, M., Tatar, A., Andriesse, D., Bos, H., Giuffrida, C., and Razavi, K. (2018, January 8\u201310). {ZebRAM}: Comprehensive and Compatible Software Protection Against Rowhammer Attacks. Proceedings of the 13th USENIX Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI 18), Carlsbad, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Gururaj, S., Wang, B., Qureshi, M., and Nair, P.J. (March, January 28). Randomized row-swap: Mitigating row hammer by breaking spatial correlation between aggressor and victim rows. Proceedings of the 27th ACM International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems, Lausanne, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Anish, S., Saileshwar, G., Nair, P.J., and Qureshi, M. (2022, January 1\u20135). Aqua: Scalable rowhammer mitigation by quarantining aggressor rows at runtime. Proceedings of the 2022 55th IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture (MICRO), Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Michele, M., Solt, F., Jattke, P., Takashi, K., and Razavi, K. (2023, January 22\u201326). REGA: Scalable Rowhammer Mitigation with Refresh-Generating Activations. Proceedings of the 44th IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP 2023), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Giray, Y.A., Olgun, A., Patel, M., Luo, H., Hassan, H., Orosa, L., Ergin, O., and Mutlu, O. (2022, January 1\u20135). HiRA: Hidden row activation for reducing refresh latency of off-the-shelf DRAM chips. Proceedings of the 2022 55th IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture (MICRO), Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Jonas, J., Lamster, L., Kogler, A., Eichlseder, M., Lipp, M., and Gruss, D. (2022, January 22\u201324). CSI: Rowhammer\u2013Cryptographic Security and Integrity against Rowhammer. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., Zhan, Z., Balasubramanian, D., Li, B., Volgyesi, P., and Koutsoukos, X. (2020, January 18\u201321). Leveraging em side-channel information to detect rowhammer attacks. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SP40000.2020.00060"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, X.-C., Sherwood, T., Chong, F.T., and Li, Y. (2019, January 13\u201317). Protecting page tables from rowhammer attacks using monotonic pointers in dram true-cells. Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems, Providence, RI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3297858.3304039"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woo, J., Saileshwar, G., and Nair, P.J. (March, January 25). Scalable and Secure Row-Swap: Efficient and Safe Row Hammer Mitigation in Memory Systems. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/HPCA56546.2023.10070999"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Di Dio, A., Koning, K., Bos, H., and Giuffrida, C. (March, January 27). Copy-on-Flip: Hardening ECC Memory Against Rowhammer Attacks. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the Network and Distributed System Security (NDSS) Symposium, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Kwangrae, K., Woo, J., Kim, J., and Chung, K.-S. (2021, January 24\u201327). Hammerfilter: Robust protection and low hardware overhead method for rowhammer. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 39th International Conference on Computer Design (ICCD), Storrs, CT, USA."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Liu, Y., Wu, P., and Zhang, Z. (2021, January 24\u201327). Discreet-PARA: Rowhammer Defense with Low Cost and High Efficiency. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 39th International Conference on Computer Design (ICCD), Storrs, CT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCD53106.2021.00074"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Mottaqiallah, T., Reinbrecht, C., Hamdioui, S., and Sep\u00falveda, J. (2021, January 7\u20139). LightRoAD: Lightweight Rowhammer Attack Detector. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI (ISVLSI), Virtual."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Ya\u011fl\u0131k\u00e7\u0131, A.G., Kim, J.S., Devaux, F., and Mutlu, O. (2021). Security Analysis of the Silver Bullet Technique for RowHammer Prevention. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1145\/2508148.2485928","article-title":"An experimental study of data retention behavior in modern DRAM devices: Implications for retention time profiling mechanisms","volume":"41","author":"Jamie","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM SIGARCH Comput. Archit. News"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(1992, January 13\u201316). Restle, Park, and Lloyd. DRAM variable retention time. Proceedings of the 1992 International Technical Digest on Electron Devices Meeting, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Lois, O., Yaglikci, A.G., Luo, H., Olgun, A., Park, J., Hassan, H., Patel, M., Kim, J.S., and Mutlu, O. (2021, January 18\u201322). A deeper look into rowhammer\u2019s sensitivities: Experimental analysis of real dram chips and implications on future attacks and defenses. Proceedings of the MICRO-54: 54th Annual IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture, Virtual."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.S., Patel, M., Ya\u011fl\u0131k\u00e7\u0131, A.G., Hassan, H., Azizi, R., Orosa, L., and Mutlu, O. (June, January 30). Revisiting rowhammer: An experimental analysis of modern dram devices and mitigation techniques. Proceedings of the 2020 ACM\/IEEE 47th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture (ISCA), Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCA45697.2020.00059"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, R.-F., Yang, H.-Y., Chao, M.C.-T., and Lin, S.-C. (2012, January 3\u20137). Alternate hammering test for application-specific DRAMs and an industrial case study. Proceedings of the 49th Annual Design Automation Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2228360.2228543"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Redeker, M., Cockburn, B.F., and Elliott, D.G. (2002, January 12). An investigation into crosstalk noise in DRAM structures. Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE International Workshop on Memory Technology, Design and Testing (MTDT2002), Bendor, France."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Ars, Z., Hamdioui, S., Van De Goor, A., Gaydadjiev, G., and Vollrath, J. (2006, January 22\u201327). DRAM-specific space of memory tests. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Test Conference, Santa Clara, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/TEST.2006.297701"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chao, M.C.T., Yang, H.Y., Huang, R.F., Lin, S.C., and Chin, C.Y. (2009, January 26\u201331). Fault models for embedded-DRAM macros. Proceedings of the 46th Annual Design Automation Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1629911.1630097"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Min, D.S.M.D.S., Seo, D.I.S.D.I., You, J.Y.J., Cho, S.C.S., Chin, D.C.D., and Park, Y.E. (1990, January 7\u20139). Wordline coupling noise reduction techniques for scaled DRAMs. Proceedings of the Digest of Technical Papers, 1990 Symposium on VLSI Circuits, Honololu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chia, P.C.F., Wen, S.J., and Baeg, S.H. (2010, January 17\u201321). New DRAM HCI qualification method emphasizing on repeated memory access. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Integrated Reliability Workshop Final Report, South Lake Tahoe, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IIRW.2010.5706509"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Shutemov, K.A. (2015, November 10). Pagemap: Do Not Leak Physical Addresses to Non-Privileged Userspace. Available online: https:\/\/lwn.net\/Articles\/642074\/."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Peter, P., Gruss, D., Maurice, C., Schwarz, M., and Mangard, S. (2016, January 10\u201312). {DRAMA}: Exploiting {DRAM} Addressing for {Cross-CPU} Attacks. Proceedings of the 25th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 16), Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Matthias, J., Rheinl\u00e4nder, C.C., Weis, C., and Wehn, N. (2016, January 3\u20136). Reverse engineering of DRAMs: Row hammer with crosshair. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Memory Systems, Alexandria, VA, USA."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Jeremie, K., Patel, M., Hassan, H., and Mutlu, O. (2018, January 7\u201310). Solar-DRAM: Reducing DRAM access latency by exploiting the variation in local bitlines. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 36th International Conference on Computer Design (ICCD), Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"26","article-title":"Design-induced latency variation in modern DRAM chips: Characterization, analysis, and latency reduction mechanisms","volume":"1","author":"Donghyuk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Meas. Anal. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Andrei, T., Giuffrida, C., Bos, H., and Razavi, K. (2018). Research in Attacks, Intrusions, and Defenses: 21st International Symposium, RAID 2018, Heraklion, Crete, Greece, 10\u201312 September 2018, Springer International Publishing. Proceedings 21."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"van Der Veen, V., Fratantonio, Y., Lindorfer, M., Gruss, D., Maurice, C., Vigna, G., Bos, H., Razavi, K., and Giuffrida, C. (2016, January 24\u201328). Drammer: Deterministic rowhammer attacks on mobile platforms. Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Rui, Q., and Seaborn, M. (2016, January 3\u20135). A new approach for rowhammer attacks. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Symposium on Hardware Oriented Security and Trust (HOST), McLean, VA, USA."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Andreas, K., Juffinger, J., Qazi, S., Kim, Y., Lipp, M., Boichat, N., Shiu, E., Nissler, M., and Gruss, D. (2022, January 10\u201312). {Half-Double}: Hammering From the Next Row Over. Proceedings of the 31st USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 22), Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Lang, Z., Jattke, P., Marazzi, M., and Razavi, K. (2023, January 17). BLASTER: Characterizing the Blast Radius of Rowhammer. Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on DRAM Security (DRAMSec) Co-Located with ISCA 2023, Virtual."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Daniel, G., Bidner, D., and Mangard, S. (2015). Computer Security\u2014ESORICS 2015: 20th European Symposium on Research in Computer Security, Vienna, Austria, 21\u201325 September 2015, Springer International Publishing. Proceedings, Part I 20."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Yossef, O., Kemerlis, V.P., Sethumadhavan, S., and Keromytis, A.D. (2015, January 12\u201316). The spy in the sandbox: Practical cache attacks in javascript and their implications. Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security, Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Pietro, F., Vannacc, E., Hassan, H., Van Der Veen, V., Mutlu, O., Giuffrida, C., Bos, H., and Razavi, K. (2020, January 18\u201321). TRRespass: Exploiting the many sides of target row refresh. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Patrick, J., Van Der Veen, V., Frigo, P., Gunter, S., and Razavi, K. (2022, January 22\u201326). Blacksmith: Scalable rowhammering in the frequency domain. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"1555","article-title":"Rowhammer: A retrospective","volume":"39","author":"Onur","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput.-Aided Des. Integr. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Wang, D.T. (2005). Modern Dram Memory Systems: Performance Analysis and Scheduling Algorithm. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maryland]."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Dimitris, K., Stuecheli, J., and John, L.K. (2011, January 3\u20137). Minimalist open-page: A DRAM page-mode scheduling policy for the many-core era. Proceedings of the 44th Annual IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture, Porto Alegre, Brazil."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Kahn, O.D., and Jeffrey, R.W. (2004). Method for Dynamically Adjusting a Memory Page Closing Policy. (6,799,241), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Siraj, R.A., He, Z., and Fan, D. (November, January 27). Bit-flip attack: Crushing neural network with progressive bit search. Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision, Seoul, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Dahoon, P., Kwon, K.-W., Im, S., and Kung, J. (2021). ZeBRA: Precisely Destroying Neural Networks with Zero-Data Based Repeated Bit Flip Attack. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Ramprasaath, R.S., Cogswell, M., Das, A., Vedantam, R., Parikh, D., and Batra, D. (2017, January 22\u201329). Grad-cam: Visual explanations from deep networks via gradient-based localization. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Venice, Italy."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Greenfield, Z., and Tomer, L.E.V.Y. (2016). Throttling Support for Row-Hammer Counters. (9,251,885), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Minesh, P., Kim, J.S., Shahroodi, T., Hassan, H., and Mutlu, O. (2020, January 17\u201321). Bit-exact ECC recovery (BEER): Determining DRAM on-die ECC functions by exploiting DRAM data retention characteristics. Proceedings of the 2020 53rd Annual IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture (MICRO), Athens, Greece."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Mohammad, S.S., Jones, A.K., and Melhem, R. (2018, January 1\u20136). Mitigating wordline crosstalk using adaptive trees of counters. Proceedings of the 2018 ACM\/IEEE 45th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture (ISCA), Los Angeles, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-6423(82)90012-0","article-title":"Finding repeated elements","volume":"2","author":"Misra","year":"1982","journal-title":"Sci. Comput. Program."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Onur, M., Olgun, A., and Ya\u011fl\u0131kc\u0131, A.G. (2023, January 16\u201319). Fundamentally understanding and solving rowhammer. Proceedings of the 28th Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"(2015). About the Security Content of Mac EFI Security Update 2015-001, Apple Inc.. Available online: https:\/\/support.apple.com\/en-us\/HT204934."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Fridley, T., and Omar, S. (2022, October 10). Mitigations Available for the DRAM Row Hammer Vulnerability. Available online: https:\/\/blogs.cisco.com\/security\/mitigations-available-for-the-dram-row-hammer-vulnerability."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Enterprise, Hewlett-Packard (2023, September 01). HP Moonshot Component Pack Version 2015.05.0. Available online: https:\/\/support.hpe.com\/hpesc\/public\/docDisplay?docId=c04676483&docLocale=en_US."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2020). JEDEC Standard, DDR5 SDRAM (Standard No. JESD79-5)."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, D., Park, M., Jang, S., Song, J.Y., Chi, H., Choi, G., Choi, S., Kim, J., Kim, C., and Kim, K. (2019, January 17\u201321). 23.2 a 1.1 V 1ynm 6.4 Gb\/s\/pin 16Gb DDR5 SDRAM with a Phase-Rotator-Based DLL, high-speed SerDes and RX\/TX equalization scheme. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference-(ISSCC), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSCC.2019.8662320"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29862","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3059843","article-title":"Minimal aliasing single-error-correction codes for dram reliability improvement","volume":"9","author":"Pae","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S.J., Kim, J.J., Joo, K., Lee, Y.H., Kim, K., Kim, Y.T., Na, W.J., Choi, I., Yu, H.S., and Kim, W. (2021, January 22\u201324). Industry\u2019s First 7.2 Gbps 512GB DDR5 Module. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Hot Chips 33 Symposium (HCS), Palo Alto, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HCS52781.2021.9567190"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S., Lee, N.H., Lee, K.W., Kim, J.H., Jin, J.H., Lee, Y.S., Hwang, Y.C., Kim, H.S., and Pae, S. (2023, January 26\u201330). Development and Product Reliability Characterization of Advanced High Speed 14nm DDR5 DRAM with On-die ECC. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium (IRPS), Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRPS48203.2023.10117889"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/592\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:48:54Z","timestamp":1760104134000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/592"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24020592"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24020592","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]}}}