{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]],"date-time":"2026-01-24T18:49:10Z","timestamp":1769280550329,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,23]],"date-time":"2024-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705968000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LP160100917"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LP160100917"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wide-angle mechanical beam steering for on-the-move satellite communications is presented in this paper based on a closed-form pillbox antenna system. It includes three main parts: a fixed-feed part, which is a substrate-integrated waveguide (SIW) horn with an extended aperture attached to a parabolic reflector; a novel quasi-optical system, which is a single coupling slot alongside and without spacing from the parabolic reflector; and a radiating disc, which is a leaky-wave metallic pattern. To make the antenna compact, pillbox-based feeding is implemented underneath the metallic patterns. The antenna is designed based on a substrate-guided grounded concept using leaky-wave metallic patterns operating at 20\u00a0GHz. Beam scanning is achieved using mechanical rotation of the leaky-wave metallic patterns. The proposed antenna has an overall size of 340 \u00d7 335 \u00d7 2 mm3, a gain of 23.2\u00a0dBi, wide beam scanning range of 120\u00b0, from \u221260\u00b0 to +60\u00b0 in the azimuthal plane, and a low side lobe level of \u221217.8\u00a0dB at a maximum scan angle of 60\u00b0. The proposed antenna terminal is suitable for next-generation ubiquitous connectivity for households and small businesses in remote areas, ships, unmanned aerial vehicles, and disaster management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24030732","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]],"date-time":"2024-01-24T04:54:01Z","timestamp":1706072041000},"page":"732","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Wide-Angle Beam Steering Closed-Form Pillbox Antenna Fed by Substrate-Integrated Waveguide Horn for On-the-Move Satellite Communications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Ikram","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Queensland (UQ), Brisbane 4072, Australia"},{"name":"College of Engineering and Applied Science (CEAS), American University of Kuwait, Safat 13034, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2756-4765","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kamel","family":"Sultan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Queensland (UQ), Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6351-8136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed Toaha","family":"Mobashsher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Queensland (UQ), Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mahdi","family":"Moosazadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Queensland (UQ), Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Amin","family":"Abbosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Queensland (UQ), Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ionescu, L., Rusu-Casandra, A., Bira, C., Tatomirescu, A., Tramandan, I., Scagnoli, R., Istriteanu, D., and Popa, A.-E. (2022). Development of the Romanian Radar Sensor for Space Surveillance and Tracking Activities. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22093546"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.001.1900516","article-title":"6G: Opening New Horizons for Integration of Comfort, Security, and Intelligence","volume":"27","author":"Gui","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2324","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2018.2873898","article-title":"Reconfigurable Phased Array Antenna Consisting of High-Gain High-Tilt Circularly Polarized Four-Arm Curl Elements for Near Horizon Scanning Satellite Applications","volume":"17","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174792","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3019590","article-title":"A Prospective Look: Key Enabling Technologies, Applications and Open Research Topics in 6G Networks","volume":"8","author":"Bariah","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chu, D., Mao, Y., Li, H., Bie, H., and Zhou, Y. (2023). Dual-Polarized Multi-Beam Fixed-Frequency Beam Scanning Leaky-Wave Antenna. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23115070"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aljaloud, K., Sultan, K., Ikram, M., Alqahtani, A.H., Abbasi, Q.H., and Hussain, R. (2023). Low-Profile Antenna System for Cognitive Radio in IoST CubeSat Applications. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23104782"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soumya, A., Mohan, C.K., and Cenkeramaddi, L.R. (2023). Recent Advances in mmWave-Radar-Based Sensing, Its Applications, and Machine Learning Techniques: A Review. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23218901"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moon, S.-M., Cho, J., and Lee, H.L. (2023). High Gain Flat-Panel mmWave Antenna Array. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23239433"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Merino-Fernandez, I., Khemchandani, S.L., del Pino, J., and Saiz-Perez, J. (2022). Phased Array Antenna Analysis Workflow Applied to Gateways for LEO Satellite Communications. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239406"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elrahman, S.I.A., Elkhawaga, A.M., Hussein, A.H., and Shaalan, A.E.A. (2023). Linear Antenna Array Sectorized Beam Scanning Approaches Using Element Position Perturbation in the Azimuth Plane. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23146557"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49688","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3172931","article-title":"Sub-6 GHz and mm-Wave 5G Vehicle-to-Everything (5G-V2X) MIMO Antenna Array","volume":"10","author":"Ikram","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2021.3060283","article-title":"Experimental Validation of a Metasurface Luneburg Lens Antenna Implemented With Glide-Symmetric Substrate-Integrated Holes","volume":"20","author":"Zetterstrom","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sultan, K., Abdullah, H., Abdallah, E., and El-Hennawy, H. (2020). MOM\/GA-Based Virtual Array for Radar Systems. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030713"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5631","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2021.3069579","article-title":"Millimeter-Wave High-Gain Magneto-Electric Dipole Antenna Array with Pillbox Corporate Feed Network","volume":"69","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11857","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2020.3020261","article-title":"A Reconfigurable Dual-Band Dual-Circularly Polarized Antenna for Vehicle Global Navigation Satellite System Application","volume":"69","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, H.-Z., and Qu, S.-W. (2023). High-Gain Millimeter-Wave Beam Scanning Transmitarray Antenna. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23104709"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5193","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2020.2980382","article-title":"Wideband Dual Circularly Polarized Antenna for Intelligent Transport Systems","volume":"69","author":"Wen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2018.2882618","article-title":"Low-Profile Circular Patch Array Fed by Slotted Substrate Integrated Waveguide","volume":"67","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1562","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2018.2883640","article-title":"A Mixed Circular\/Linear Dual-Polarized Phased Array Concept for Automotive Radar\u2014Planar Antenna Designs and System Evaluation at 78 GHz","volume":"67","author":"Hamberger","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147142","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3124318","article-title":"A Review of Multibeam Phased Array Antennas as LEO Satellite Constellation Ground Station","volume":"9","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7384","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2022.3167807","article-title":"A Low Profile Circularly Polarized Beam Scanning Patch Array Fed by Parallel Plate Waveguide","volume":"70","author":"Lou","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2020.3035091","article-title":"38-GHz Phased Array Transmitter and Receiver Based on Scalable Phased Array Modules with Endfire Antenna Arrays for 5G MMW Data Links","volume":"69","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1109\/8.668900","article-title":"Electronically steerable Yagi-Uda microstrip patch antenna array","volume":"46","author":"Gray","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2014.2301435","article-title":"Low-Cost Dual-Band Circularly Polarized Switched-Beam Array for Global Navigation Satellite System","volume":"62","author":"Maqsood","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1109\/JMW.2022.3202626","article-title":"Electronically Steerable Antennas for Future Heterogeneous Communication Networks: Review and Perspectives","volume":"2","author":"Chaloun","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Microwaves"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6490","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2022.3161514","article-title":"A Highly Pattern-Reconfigurable Planar Antenna With 360\u00b0 Single- and Multi-Beam Steering","volume":"70","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3043","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2009.2029275","article-title":"94 GHz Dual-Reflector Antenna with Reflectarray Subreflector","volume":"57","author":"Hu","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2020.3002924","article-title":"Rotman Lens-Based Wide Angular Coverage and High-Gain Semipassive Architecture for Ultralong Range mm-Wave RFIDs","volume":"19","author":"Eid","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9134","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2017.2714693","article-title":"Rotman Lens Based Hybrid Analog\u2013Digital Beamforming in Massive MIMO Systems: Array Architectures, Beam Selection Algorithms and Experiments","volume":"66","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5060","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2020.3048508","article-title":"A Multibeam Tapered Cylindrical Luneburg Lens","volume":"69","author":"Mirmozafari","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1862","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2022.3183219","article-title":"Low-Profile Dual-Polarized Luneburg Lens Based on TE\/TM Surface Wave Modes","volume":"21","author":"Ao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1109\/LMWC.2021.3061691","article-title":"Miniaturized High-Power Beam Steering Network Using Novel Nonplanar Waveguide Butler Matrix","volume":"31","author":"Paul","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Microw. Wirel. Components Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"3527","article-title":"Design of 2 \u00d7 8 Filtering Butler Matrix with Arbitrary Power Distribution","volume":"68","author":"Shao","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II Express Briefs"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3664","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2020.2963931","article-title":"A Planar Millimeter-Wave Antenna Array with a Pillbox-Distributed Network","volume":"68","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7095","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2022.3162299","article-title":"A Pillbox Based Dual Circularly-Polarized Millimeter-Wave Multi-Beam Antenna for Future Vehicular Radar Applications","volume":"71","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3918","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2015.2446996","article-title":"SIW Pillbox Antenna for Monopulse Radar Applications","volume":"63","author":"Tekkouk","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2021.3072649","article-title":"A W-Band High-Efficiency Multibeam Circularly Polarized Antenna Array Fed by GGW Butler Matrix","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.-G., and Lee, J.-H. (2023). Low-Profile High-Efficiency Transmitarray Antenna for Beamforming Applications. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12143178"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4792","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2015.2479243","article-title":"Continuous Transverse Stub Array for Ka-Band Applications","volume":"63","author":"Ettorre","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2011.2109695","article-title":"Multi-Beam Multi-Layer Leaky-Wave SIW Pillbox Antenna for Millimeter-Wave Applications","volume":"59","author":"Ettorre","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Balanis, C.A. (2016). Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, Wiley. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2022.3164627","article-title":"A Multiband Multibeam Antenna for Sub-6 GHz and mm-Wave 5G Applications","volume":"21","author":"Sultan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73157","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2919579","article-title":"SIW Multibeam Antenna Array at 30 GHz for 5G Mobile Devices","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6870","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2019.2925189","article-title":"Wideband Beam-Switchable 28 GHz Quasi-Yagi Array for Mobile Devices","volume":"67","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2020.3037809","article-title":"A Novel Dual-Polarized Continuous Transverse Stub Antenna Based on Corrugated Waveguides\u2014Part II: Experimental Demonstration","volume":"69","author":"Smierzchalski","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2616","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2018.2809694","article-title":"Multibeam Pillbox Antenna Integrating Amplitude-Comparison Monopulse Technique in the 24 GHz Band for Tracking Applications","volume":"66","author":"Tekkouk","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5209","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2015.2477520","article-title":"Multibeam Pillbox Antenna with Low Sidelobe Level and High-Beam Crossover in SIW Technology Using the Split Aperture Decoupling Method","volume":"63","author":"Tekkouk","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1572","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2012.2235057","article-title":"SIW Slotted Waveguide Array with Pillbox Transition for Mechanical Beam Scanning","volume":"11","author":"Gandini","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2010.2071850","article-title":"Single-Folded Leaky-Wave Antennas for Automotive Radars at 77 GHz","volume":"9","author":"Ettorre","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/3\/732\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:48:00Z","timestamp":1760104080000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/3\/732"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,23]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s24030732"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24030732","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,23]]}}}