{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T17:21:33Z","timestamp":1777656093824,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]],"date-time":"2024-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707264000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000046","name":"National Research Council Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NBR3-668"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NBR3-668"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000046","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Florida Institute of Technology","award":["NBR3-668"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NBR3-668"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: There is a significant need to monitor human cognitive performance in complex environments, with one example being pilot performance. However, existing assessments largely focus on subjective experiences (e.g., questionnaires) and the evaluation of behavior (e.g., aircraft handling) as surrogates for cognition or utilize brainwave measures which require artificial setups (e.g., simultaneous auditory stimuli) that intrude on the primary tasks. Blink-related oscillations (BROs) are a recently discovered neural phenomenon associated with spontaneous blinking that can be captured without artificial setups and are also modulated by cognitive loading and the external sensory environment\u2014making them ideal for brain function assessment within complex operational settings. Methods: Electroencephalography (EEG) data were recorded from eight adult participants (five F, M = 21.1 years) while they completed the Multi-Attribute Task Battery under three different cognitive loading conditions. BRO responses in time and frequency domains were derived from the EEG data, and comparisons of BRO responses across cognitive loading conditions were undertaken. Simultaneously, assessments of blink behavior were also undertaken. Results: Blink behavior assessments revealed decreasing blink rate with increasing cognitive load (p &lt; 0.001). Prototypical BRO responses were successfully captured in all participants (p &lt; 0.001). BRO responses reflected differences in task-induced cognitive loading in both time and frequency domains (p &lt; 0.05). Additionally, reduced pre-blink theta band desynchronization with increasing cognitive load was also observed (p &lt; 0.05). Conclusion: This study confirms the ability of BRO responses to capture cognitive loading effects as well as preparatory pre-blink cognitive processes in anticipation of the upcoming blink during a complex multitasking situation. These successful results suggest that blink-related neural processing could be a potential avenue for cognitive state evaluation in operational settings\u2014both specialized environments such as cockpits, space exploration, military units, etc. and everyday situations such as driving, athletics, human-machine interactions, etc.\u2014where human cognition needs to be seamlessly monitored and optimized.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24041082","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]],"date-time":"2024-02-07T06:12:58Z","timestamp":1707286378000},"page":"1082","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Blink-Related Oscillations Provide Naturalistic Assessments of Brain Function and Cognitive Workload within Complex Real-World Multitasking Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Cleo","family":"Page","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Engineering Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 2E4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Careesa Chang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering and Science, Florida Institute of Technology, 150 W University Boulevard, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jed","family":"Meltzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Baycrest Health Sciences, Toronto, ON M6A 2E1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sujoy","family":"Ghosh Hajra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering and Science, Florida Institute of Technology, 150 W University Boulevard, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.08.011","article-title":"Neuroergonomics: The brain in action and at work","volume":"59","author":"Parasuraman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00535","article-title":"Neural correlates of workload transition in multitasking: An ACT-R model of hysteresis effect","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583733","DOI":"10.3389\/fnrgo.2020.583733","article-title":"Brain at Work and in Everyday Life as the Next Frontier: Grand Field Challenges for Neuroergonomics","volume":"1","author":"Dehais","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neuroergon."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00187","article-title":"In silico vs. over the clouds: On-the-fly mental state estimation of aircraft pilots, using a functional near infrared spectroscopy based passive-BCI","volume":"12","author":"Gateau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"111","article-title":"A Neuroergonomics Approach to Measure Pilot\u2019s Cognitive Incapacitation in the Real World with EEG","volume":"Volume 1201","author":"Dehais","year":"2021","journal-title":"Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Proceedings of the 7th Euro-China Conference on Intelligent Data Analysis and Applications, Hangzhou, China, 29\u201331 May 2021"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606719","DOI":"10.3389\/fnrgo.2020.606719","article-title":"Electro-Encephalography and Electro-Oculography in Aeronautics: A Review over the Last Decade (2010\u20132020)","volume":"1","author":"Belkhiria","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neuroergon."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"International Air Transport Association (2019). IATA Safety Report 2018\u2014Edition 55, International Air Transport Association."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2018.1471159","article-title":"Comparison of NASA-TLX scale, modified Cooper\u2013Harper scale and mean inter-beat interval as measures of pilot mental workload during simulated flight tasks","volume":"62","author":"Mansikka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62386-9","article-title":"Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research","volume":"52","author":"Hart","year":"1988","journal-title":"Adv. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Cooper, G.E., and Harper, R.P. (1969). The Use of Pilot Rating in the Evaluation of Aircraft Handling Qualities."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Zheng, H., Duan, Y., Meng, L., and Zhang, L. (2015, January 15\u201317). An integrated approach to subjective measuring commercial aviation pilot workload. Proceedings of the 2015 10th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, ICIEA, Auckland, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIEA.2015.7334270"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alaimo, A., Esposito, A., Orlando, C., and Simoncini, A. (2020). Aircraft pilots workload analysis: Heart rate variability objective measures and NASA-Task Load Index subjective evaluation. Aerospace, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace7090137"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1078","article-title":"Inflight workload assessment: Comparison of subjective and physiological measurements","volume":"74","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aviat. Sp. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/19488300.2011.609524","article-title":"Measuring workload of ICU nurses with a questionnaire survey: The NASA Task Load Index (TLX)","volume":"1","author":"Hoonakker","year":"2011","journal-title":"IIE Trans. Healthc. Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2017.1369583","article-title":"Measuring mental workload with the NASA-TLX needs to examine each dimension rather than relying on the global score: An example with driving","volume":"61","author":"Galy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Law, A., Ghosh Hajra, S., Jennings, S., and Ellis, K. (2020, January 5\u20138). An Evaluation of Pilot Electroencephalographic Activity during a Helicopter Tracking Task. Proceedings of the Vertical Flight Society\u2019s 76th Annual Forum & Technology Display, Virginia Beach, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.4050\/F-0076-2020-16423"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2018.08.028","article-title":"Measuring mental workload using physiological measures: A systematic review","volume":"74","author":"Charles","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luzzani, G., Buraioli, I., Demarchi, D., and Guglieri, G. (2023). A review of physiological measures for mental workload assessment in aviation: A state-of-the-art review of mental workload physiological assessment methods in human-machine interaction analysis. Aeronaut. J., 1\u201322.","DOI":"10.1017\/aer.2023.101"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, X., Macnaughton, P., Cadet, L.R., Cedeno-Laurent, J.G., Flanigan, S., Vallarino, J., Donnelly-McLay, D., Christiani, D.C., Spengler, J.D., and Allen, J.G. (2019). Heart rate variability and performance of commercial airline pilots during flight simulations. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16020237"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14668","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-50280-3","article-title":"Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability Correlate with Clinical Reasoning Performance and Self-Reported Measures of Cognitive Load","volume":"9","author":"Solhjoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1021\/ed400576n","article-title":"Measuring load on working memory: The use of heart rate as a means of measuring chemistry students cognitive load","volume":"91","author":"Cranford","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McDuff, D., Gontarek, S., and Picard, R. (2014, January 26\u201330). Remote measurement of cognitive stress via heart rate variability. Proceedings of the 2014 36th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, EMBC, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2014.6944243"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8146809","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/8146809","article-title":"Respiratory changes in response to cognitive load: A systematic review","volume":"2016","author":"Grassmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neural Plast."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3145","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-018-6518-z","article-title":"Modeling cognitive load and physiological arousal through pupil diameter and heart rate","volume":"79","author":"Sennersten","year":"2020","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2020.135293","article-title":"Eye blink rate increases as a function of cognitive load during an auditory oddball paradigm","volume":"736","author":"Magliacano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nourbakhsh, N., Wang, Y., Chen, F., and Calvo, R.A. (2012, January 26\u201330). Using galvanic skin response for cognitive load measurement in arithmetic and reading tasks. Proceedings of the 24th Australian Computer-Human Interaction Conference, OzCHI, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2414536.2414602"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romine, W.L., Schroeder, N.L., Graft, J., Yang, F., Sadeghi, R., Zabihimayvan, M., Kadariya, D., and Banerjee, T. (2020). Using machine learning to train a wearable device for measuring students\u2019 cognitive load during problem-solving activities based on electrodermal activity, body temperature, and heart rate: Development of a cognitive load tracker for both personal and classroom use. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20174833"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Nourbakhsh, N., Wang, Y., and Chen, F. (2013). Human-Computer Interaction\u2013INTERACT 2013: 14th IFIP TC 13 International Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 2\u20136, 2013, Proceedings, Part I, Springer."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2017.01019","article-title":"Dual frequency head maps: A new method for indexing mental workload continuously during execution of cognitive tasks","volume":"8","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"6182","article-title":"Avionic technology testing by using a cognitive neurometric index: A study with professional helicopter pilots","volume":"Volume 2015","author":"Borghini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 2015 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC)"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233722","DOI":"10.3389\/fnrgo.2023.1233722","article-title":"Assessment of mental workload across cognitive tasks using a passive brain-computer interface based on mean negative theta-band amplitudes","volume":"4","author":"Ayala","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neuroergon."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Luck, S.J. (2014). An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, S., and Parasuraman, R. (2006). Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195177619.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Luck, S.J. (2004). Event-Related Potentials: A Methods Handbook, Handy TC."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-8986.3720127","article-title":"Guidelines for using human event-related potentials to study cognition: Recording standards and publication criteria","volume":"37","author":"Picton","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2435","DOI":"10.1007\/s12652-020-02381-5","article-title":"Gauging human visual interest using multiscale entropy analysis of EEG signals","volume":"12","author":"Fraiwan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ambient Intell. Humaniz. Comput."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barua, S., Ahmed, M.U., and Begum, S. (2020). Towards intelligent data analytics: A case study in driver cognitive load classification. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10080526"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbe.2019.12.002","article-title":"Classification of pilots\u2019 mental states using a multimodal deep learning network","volume":"40","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biocybern. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2012.10.003","article-title":"Measuring neurophysiological signals in aircraft pilots and car drivers for the assessment of mental workload, fatigue and drowsiness","volume":"44","author":"Borghini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1177\/00187208211007707","article-title":"Neuroergonomics on the Go: An Evaluation of the Potential of Mobile EEG for Workplace Assessment and Design","volume":"65","author":"Wascher","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00489","article-title":"Spontaneous Blinks Activate the Precuneus: Characterizing Blink-Related Oscillations Using Magnetoencephalography","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2008.10.039","article-title":"Blink-related delta oscillations in the resting-state EEG: A wavelet analysis","volume":"449","author":"Bonfiglio","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02691032","article-title":"Blinks as an Index of Cognitive Activity during Reading","volume":"26","author":"Orchard","year":"1991","journal-title":"Integr. Physiol. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-010-2387-z","article-title":"Eyeblink entrainment at breakpoints of speech","volume":"205","author":"Nakano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3635","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2009.0828","article-title":"Synchronization of spontaneous eyeblinks while viewing video stories","volume":"276","author":"Nakano","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B-Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.24378","article-title":"Cognitive loading via mental arithmetic modulates effects of blink-related oscillations on precuneus and ventral attention network regions","volume":"40","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.116879","article-title":"Differential neural processing of spontaneous blinking under visual and auditory sensory environments: An EEG investigation of blink-related oscillations","volume":"218","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2019.2915185","article-title":"Novel Signal Processing Technique for Capture and Isolation of Blink-Related Oscillations Using a Low-Density Electrode Array for Bedside Evaluation of Consciousness","volume":"67","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Ghosh Hajra, S., Liu, C.C., and Law, A. (2021, January 11\u201316). Neural responses to spontaneous blinking capture differences in working memory load: Assessing blink related oscillations with N-back task. Proceedings of the International Neuroergonomics Conference, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dehais, F., Dupr\u00e8s, A., Blum, S., Drougard, N., Scannella, S., Roy, R.N., and Lotte, F. (2019). Monitoring pilot\u2019s mental workload using erps and spectral power with a six-dry-electrode EEG system in real flight conditions. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19061324"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100822","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imu.2021.100822","article-title":"Multi-Attribute Task Battery configuration to effectively assess pilot performance deterioration during prolonged wakefulness","volume":"28","author":"Kong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inform. Med. Unlocked"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Santiago-Espada, Y., Myer, R.R., Latorella, K.A., and Comstock, J.R. (2011). The Multi-Attribute Task Battery II (MATB-II) Software for Human Performance and Workload Research: A User\u2019s Guide."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, C., Liu, S., Wanyan, X., Chen, H., Min, Y., and Ma, Y. (2022). EEG Feature Analysis Related to Situation Awareness Assessment and Discrimination. Aerospace, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace9100546"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qu, H., Shan, Y., Liu, Y., Pang, L., Fan, Z., Zhang, J., and Wanyan, X. (2020). Mental workload classification method based on EEG independent component features. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10093036"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611962","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.611962","article-title":"Adaptive Filtering for Improved EEG-Based Mental Workload Assessment of Ambulant Users","volume":"15","author":"Rosanne","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.07.091","article-title":"The effects of day-to-day variability of physiological data on operator functional state classification","volume":"59","author":"Christensen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1177\/154193121005400317","article-title":"How Does Day-to-Day Variability in Psychophysiological Data Affect Classifier Accuracy?","volume":"54","author":"Wilson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009","article-title":"EEGLAB: An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis","volume":"134","author":"Delorme","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-8986.3720163","article-title":"Removing electroencephalographic artifacts by blind source separation","volume":"37","author":"Jung","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016008","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/aae91e","article-title":"Accessing knowledge of the \u201chere and now\u201d: A new technique for capturing electromagnetic markers of orientation processing","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.20982\/tqmp.06.1.p031","article-title":"An introduction to independent component analysis: InfoMax and FastICA algorithms","volume":"6","author":"Langlois","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tutor. Quant. Methods Psychol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-6080(00)00026-5","article-title":"Independent component analysis: Algorithms and applications","volume":"13","author":"Oja","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e054093","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.054093","article-title":"for A. and N. Spontaneous blinking and brain health: Can blink-related oscillations capture brain changes in aging?","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.01068","article-title":"A Comparative Study of Different EEG Reference Choices for Event-Related Potentials Extracted by Independent Component Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Dong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00205","article-title":"Understanding the influences of EEG reference: A large-scale brain network perspective","volume":"11","author":"Lei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22056","article-title":"Cortical source of blink-related delta oscillations and their correlation with levels of consciousness","volume":"34","author":"Bonfiglio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208498","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1208498","article-title":"Blink-related EEG oscillations are neurophysiological indicators of subconcussive head impacts in female soccer players: A preliminary study","volume":"17","author":"Sattari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farago, E., Law, A.J., Ghosh Hajra, S., and Chan, A.D.C. (2022, January 16\u201319). Blink and saccade detection from forehead EEG. Proceedings of the Conference Record\u2014IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC48687.2022.9806494"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e08826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e08826","article-title":"Multiple levels of mental attentional demand modulate peak saccade velocity and blink rate","volume":"8","author":"Bachurina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sciaraffa, N., Borghini, G., Di Flumeri, G., Cincotti, F., Babiloni, F., and Aric\u00f2, P. (2021). Joint analysis of eye blinks and brain activity to investigate attentional demand during a visual search task. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11050562"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Zagermann, J., Pfeil, U., and Reiterer, H. (2016). BELIV \u201816: Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Beyond Time and Errors on Novel Evaluation Methods for Visualization, Association for Computing Machinery."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.04.073","article-title":"Cognitive demand, digital screens and blink rate","volume":"51","author":"Rosenfield","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2018.12.006","article-title":"Using pupil dilation, eye-blink rate, and the value of mother to investigate reward learning mechanisms in infancy","volume":"36","author":"Tummeltshammer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8267","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-64999-x","article-title":"Blink Rate Patterns Provide a Reliable Measure of Individual Engagement with Scene Content","volume":"10","author":"Ranti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.1960-18","article-title":"Using spontaneous eye-blink rates to predict the motor status of patients with parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"58","author":"Iwaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awl004","article-title":"The precuneus: A review of its functional anatomy and behavioural correlates","volume":"129","author":"Cavanna","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10171","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-28487-7","article-title":"Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation reveals a causal role of the human precuneus in spatial updating","volume":"8","author":"Riemer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024583","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1024583","article-title":"Using spontaneous eye blink-related brain activity to investigate cognitive load during mobile map-assisted navigation","volume":"17","author":"Cheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200303030-00017","article-title":"Alpha and beta oscillatory changes during stimulus-induced movement paradigms: Effect of stimulus predictability","volume":"14","author":"Alegre","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2898","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21410","article-title":"Beta oscillations relate to the N400m during language comprehension","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-018-1527-2","article-title":"Multimodal characterization of the semantic N400 response within a rapid evaluation brain vital sign framework","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2006.01.053","article-title":"Brain oscillatory 1\u201330Hz EEG ERD\/ERS responses during the different stages of an auditory memory search task","volume":"399","author":"Pesonen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"355","article-title":"Oscillatory synchrony and human visual cognition","volume":"97","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-36793-3","article-title":"Working memory performance in the elderly relates to theta-alpha oscillations and is predicted by parahippocampal and striatal integrity","volume":"9","author":"Steiger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10062","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-28174-7","article-title":"Group size effects on inter-blink interval as an indicator of antipredator vigilance in wild baboons","volume":"8","author":"Okamoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3920","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1424875112","article-title":"Soft, curved electrode systems capable of integration on the auricle as a persistent brain\u2013computer interface","volume":"112","author":"Norton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16743","DOI":"10.1038\/srep16743","article-title":"Unobtrusive ambulatory EEG using a smartphone and flexible printed electrodes around the ear","volume":"5","author":"Debener","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2824","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2013.2264956","article-title":"A study of evoked potentials from ear-EEG","volume":"60","author":"Kidmose","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajra, S.G., Xi, P., and Law, A. (2020, January 11\u201314). A comparison of ECG and EEG metrics for in-flight monitoring of helicopter pilot workload. Proceedings of the IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Systems, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC42975.2020.9283499"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajra, S.G., Gopinath, S., Liu, C.C., Pawlowski, G., Fickling, S.D., Song, X., and D\u2019Arcy, R.C.N. (2020, January 9\u201312). Enabling event-related potential assessments using low-density electrode arrays: A new technique for denoising individual channel EEG data. Proceedings of the IEMTRONICS 2020\u2014International IOT, Electronics and Mechatronics Conference, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMTRONICS51293.2020.9216365"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajra, S.G., Liu, C.C., Fickling, S.D., Pawlowski, G.M., Song, X., and D\u2019arcy, R.C.N. (2021). Event related potential signal capture can be enhanced through dynamic snr-weighted channel pooling. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217258"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286854","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1286854","article-title":"Towards ubiquitous and nonintrusive measurements of brain function in the real world: Assessing blink-related oscillations during simulated flight using portable low-cost EEG","volume":"17","author":"Ziccardi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/4\/1082\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:56:22Z","timestamp":1760104582000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/4\/1082"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s24041082"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24041082","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]]}}}