{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T23:20:38Z","timestamp":1785367238309,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,8]],"date-time":"2024-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707350400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Spoofing against the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is an attack with strong concealment, posing a significant threat to the security of the GNSS. Many strategies have been developed to prevent such attacks, but current detection methods based on signal direction for multi-agent spoofing require multiple antennas\/receivers, leading to increased cost and complexity in implementation. Additionally, methods utilizing a moving single antenna cannot effectively detect multi-agent spoofing. Therefore, we introduce a novel spoofing-detection technique based on the intersection angle between two directions of arrival (IA-DOA) using a single rotating antenna. The essence of this approach lies in estimating the IA-DOA between a pair of signals by utilizing the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) and carrier phase single difference (CPSD) of the received signal. The estimation of IA-DOA should be consistent with the prediction when there is no spoofing. With spoofing, it is difficult to accurately simulate the directionality of navigation signals, which can disrupt the consistency between the estimation and prediction of IA-DOA. Therefore, estimations and predictions of IA-DOA can be used to establish detection variables through generalized likelihood ratio testing (GLRT) to detect multi-agent spoofing. We conducted a simulation to analyze the impact of the antenna\u2019s parameters on the detection performance and evaluated it through on-site experiments. The results indicate that the method proposed in this article can efficiently achieve real-time detection of multi-agent spoofing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24041116","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,8]],"date-time":"2024-02-08T09:00:02Z","timestamp":1707382802000},"page":"1116","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["GNSS Spoofing Detection via the Intersection Angle between Two Directions of Arrival in a Single Rotating Antenna"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4820-7014","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shimiao","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuyan","family":"Ni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tuofeng","family":"Lei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lingfeng","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Satellite Maritime Telemetry Control Department, Jiangyin 214400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Academy of Military Sciences, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Kai, J., Matthias, S., Daniel, M., and Vincent, L. (2018, January 20\u201324). Crowd-GPS-Sec: Leveraging Crowdsourcing to Detect and Localize GPS Spoofing Attacks. Proceedings of the IEEE Symposimu on Security and Privacy, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3420","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2017.2785414","article-title":"User-Centric View of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Transmission Against Smart Attacks","volume":"67","author":"Liang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/navi.50","article-title":"Pre-Despreading Authenticity Verification for GPS L1 C\/A Signals","volume":"61","author":"Jafarnia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Navig. J. Inst. Navig."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-017-0693-7","article-title":"GNSS spoofing detection based on new signal quality assessment model","volume":"22","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-018-0745-7","article-title":"Moving variance-based signal quality monitoring method for spoofing detection","volume":"22","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1305","article-title":"Spoofing detection using GNSS\/INS\/Odometer coupling for vehicular navigation","volume":"5","author":"Broum","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2749","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-021-0398-0","article-title":"Performance Analysis of Direct GNSS Spoofing Detection with Accelerometers for Constant Velocity","volume":"20","author":"Kwon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Control. Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"European Commission (2018). Galileo Navigation Message Authentication Specification for Signal-In-Space Testing\u2013v1.1, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2021.3053129","article-title":"Analysis and Recommendations for MAC and Key Lengths in Delayed Disclosure GNSS Authentication Protocols","volume":"57","author":"Ashur","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23759","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2970203","article-title":"BD-II NMA and SSI: An scheme of antispoofing and open BeiDou II D2 navigation message authentication","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Cui, X., and Xu, H. (2019). A two-stage interference suppression scheme based on antenna array for GNSS jamming and spoofing. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19183870"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0868-5","article-title":"A Dual-antenna GNSS spoofing-detection method based on Doppler frequency difference of arrival","volume":"23","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-022-01345-w","article-title":"GNSS antispoofing method using the intersection angle between two directions of arrival (IA-DOA) for multi-antenna receivers","volume":"1","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-018-0779-x","article-title":"Efficient spoofing identification using baseline vector information of multiple receivers","volume":"22","author":"Seo","year":"2018","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2019.0058","article-title":"Global navigation satellite system spoofing-detection technique based on the Doppler ripple caused by vertical reciprocating motion","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, H., Pang, C., and Zhang, L. (2022). Rotating Single-Antenna Spoofing Signal Detection Method Based on IPNN. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197141"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geng, Z., Nie, J., and Xiao, Z. (2017, January 23\u201325). A GNSS spoofing detection technique based on signal spatial correlation. Proceedings of the China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC) 2017 Proceedings, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-4588-2_81"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8039","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2698070","article-title":"GNSS spoofing countermeasure with a single rotating antenna","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/4\/1116\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:57:22Z","timestamp":1760104642000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/4\/1116"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,8]]},"references-count":18,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s24041116"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24041116","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,8]]}}}