{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T09:00:16Z","timestamp":1771059616658,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]],"date-time":"2024-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union (NextGeneration EU)","award":["ECS00000022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ECS00000022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the pursuit of refining the fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) microelectrode arrays (MEAs), this study investigates the application of ultrasonic vibrations in template-assisted electrodeposition. This was driven by the need to overcome limitations in the deposition rate and the height uniformity of microstructures developed using conventional electrodeposition methods, particularly in the field of in vitro electrophysiological investigations. This study employs a template-assisted electrodeposition approach coupled with ultrasonic vibrations to enhance the deposition process. The method involves utilizing a polymeric hard mask to define the shape of electrodeposited microstructures (i.e., micro-pillars). The results show that the integration of ultrasonic vibrations significantly increases the deposition rate by up to 5 times and substantially improves the uniformity in 3D MEAs. The key conclusion drawn is that ultrasonic-enhanced template-assisted electrodeposition emerges as a powerful technique and enables the development of 3D MEAs at a higher rate and with a superior uniformity. This advancement holds promising implications for the precision of selective electrodeposition applications and signifies a significant stride in developing micro- and nanofabrication methodologies for biomedical applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24041251","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]],"date-time":"2024-02-15T08:29:37Z","timestamp":1707985777000},"page":"1251","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Enhancing the Deposition Rate and Uniformity in 3D Gold Microelectrode Arrays via Ultrasonic-Enhanced Template-Assisted Electrodeposition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2159-7016","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Neeraj","family":"Yadav","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Center for Sensors & Devices (SD), FBK\u2014Foundation Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6009-0103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Flavio","family":"Giacomozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Sensors & Devices (SD), FBK\u2014Foundation Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3497-7066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Cian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Sensors & Devices (SD), FBK\u2014Foundation Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8197-8729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Damiano","family":"Giubertoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Sensors & Devices (SD), FBK\u2014Foundation Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4624-170X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leandro","family":"Lorenzelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Sensors & Devices (SD), FBK\u2014Foundation Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, J.S., Lee, H.J., Rajaraman, S., and Kim, D.H. (2021). Recent Advances in Three-Dimensional Microelectrode Array Technologies for in Vitro and in Vivo Cardiac and Neuronal Interfaces. Biosens. Bioelectron., 171.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112687"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2021.08.003","article-title":"Probing Function in 3D Neuronal Cultures: A Survey of 3D Multielectrode Array Advances","volume":"60","author":"Lam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2313","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-010-3968-1","article-title":"The Potential of Microelectrode Arrays and Microelectronics for Biomedical Research and Diagnostics","volume":"399","author":"Jones","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800436","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.201800436","article-title":"3D Nanostructured Multielectrode Arrays: Fabrication, Electrochemical Characterization, and Evaluation of Cell\u2013Electrode Adhesion","volume":"4","author":"Decker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabj4853","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abj4853","article-title":"CMU Array: A 3D Nanoprinted, Fully Customizable High-Density Microelectrode Array Platform","volume":"8","author":"Saleh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00785.2013","article-title":"Large-Scale, High-Density (up to 512 Channels) Recording of Local Circuits in Behaving Animals","volume":"111","author":"Nagy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1109\/10.83588","article-title":"A Silicon-Based, Three-Dimensional Neural Interface: Manufacturing Processes for an Intracortical Electrode Array","volume":"38","author":"Campbell","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055014","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/25\/5\/055014","article-title":"Fabrication and Mechanical Characterization of Long and Different Penetrating Length Neural Microelectrode Arrays","volume":"25","author":"Goncalves","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Micromechanics Microengineering"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1039\/C9LC01148J","article-title":"A Flexible 3-Dimensional Microelectrode Array for: In Vitro Brain Models","volume":"20","author":"Soscia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200580","DOI":"10.1002\/admi.202200580","article-title":"Alginate-Laminin Hydrogel Supports Long-Term Neuronal Activity in 3D Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neuronal Networks","volume":"10","author":"Hartmann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bartsch, H., Baca, M., Fernekorn, U., M\u00fcller, J., Schober, A., and Witte, H. (2018). Functionalized Thick Film Impedance Sensors for Use in In Vitro Cell Culture. Biosensors, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios8020037"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorenzelli, L., Spanu, A., Pedrotti, S., Tedesco, M., and Martinoia, S. (2019, January 23\u201327). Three-Dimensional Microelectrodes Array Based on Vertically Stacked Beads for Mapping Neurons\u2019 Electrophysiological Activity. Proceedings of the 2019 20th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators Microsystems Eurosensors XXXIII, TRANSDUCERS 2019 EUROSENSORS XXXIII, Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2019.8808682"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, P., Wu, E.G., Ulu\u015fan, H., Phillips, A.J., Hays, M.R., Kling, A., Zhao, E.T., Madugula, S., Vilkhu, R.S., and Vasireddy, P.K. (2023). Direct-Print Three-Dimensional Electrodes for Large-Scale, High-Density, and Customizable Neural Interfaces. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.05.30.542925"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-019-0487-x","article-title":"An Atlas of Nano-Enabled Neural Interfaces","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghane-Motlagh, B., and Sawan, M. (2013, January 11\u201313). A Review of Microelectrode Array Technologies: Design and Implementation Challenges. Proceedings of the 2013 2nd International Conference on Advances in Biomedical Engineering, Tripoli, Lebanon.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICABME.2013.6648841"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeck, G., Jetter, F., Channappa, L., Bertotti, G., and Thewes, R. (2017). Electrical Imaging: Investigating Cellular Function at High Resolution. Adv. Biosyst., 1.","DOI":"10.1002\/adbi.201700107"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5749","DOI":"10.4249\/scholarpedia.5749","article-title":"Multielectrode Arrays","volume":"6","author":"Gross","year":"2011","journal-title":"Scholarpedia"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036033","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ab9844","article-title":"A Three-Dimensional Micro-Electrode Array for in-Vitro Neuronal Interfacing","volume":"17","author":"Spanu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadav, N., Lorenzelli, L., and Giacomozzi, F. (2021, January 13\u201316). A Novel Additive Manufacturing Approach towards Fabrication of Multi-Level Three-Dimensional Microelectrode Array for Electrophysiological Investigations. Proceedings of the 2021 23rd European Microelectronics and Packaging Conference & Exhibition (EMPC), Gothenburg, Sweden.","DOI":"10.23919\/EMPC53418.2021.9584948"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000770","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202000770","article-title":"Gold-Mushroom Microelectrode Arrays and the Quest for Intracellular-Like Recordings: Perspectives and Outlooks","volume":"6","author":"Teixeira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-022-00466-z","article-title":"A Flexible Protruding Microelectrode Array for Neural Interfacing in Bioelectronic Medicine","volume":"8","author":"Steins","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115002","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6439\/acf940","article-title":"Development of Multi-Depth Probing 3D Microelectrode Array to Record Electrophysiological Activity within Neural Cultures","volume":"33","author":"Yadav","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Micromechanics Microengineering"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6319","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.6b01352","article-title":"Specific Neuron Placement on Gold and Silicon Nitride-Patterned Substrates through a Two-Step Functionalization Method","volume":"32","author":"Mescola","year":"2016","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2020.01.028","article-title":"Ultrasonic Vibration-Assisted (UV-A) Manufacturing Processes: State of the Art and Future Perspectives","volume":"51","author":"Ning","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.3103\/S1067821215040215","article-title":"The Application of Ultrasound Technology in the Field of the Precious Metal","volume":"56","author":"Wei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Russ. J. Non-Ferrous Met."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(02)01016-1","article-title":"How Ultrasound Influences the Electrodeposition of Metals","volume":"531","author":"Hyde","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-007-1196-4","article-title":"Micro Fabrication Using Electro Deposition and Ultrasonic Acoustic Liquid Manipulation","volume":"39","author":"Gadkari","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.2973","article-title":"Flexible, Foldable, Actively Multiplexed, High-Density Electrode Array for Mapping Brain Activity in Vivo","volume":"14","author":"Viventi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21159","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-25457-y","article-title":"Effects of Ultrasonic-Assisted Nickel Pretreatment Method on Electroless Copper Plating over Graphene","volume":"12","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2015.01.020","article-title":"Ultrasound-Assisted Electrodeposition of Nickel: Effect of Ultrasonic Power on the Characteristics of Thin Coatings","volume":"264","author":"Tudela","year":"2015","journal-title":"Surf. Coatings Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2020.105193","article-title":"de Ultrasound-Assisted Electrodeposition and Synthesis of Alloys and Composite Materials: A Review","volume":"68","author":"Costa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ultrason. Sonochemistry"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2017.01.021","article-title":"Electroless Deposition of Nickel-Boron Coatings Using Low Frequency Ultrasonic Agitation: Effect of Ultrasonic Frequency on the Coatings","volume":"77","author":"Bonin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"37","article-title":"Electrodeposition of Copper Patterns Using EnFACE Technique under Ultrasonic Agitation","volume":"41","author":"Coleman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Scherrer, P. (1918). Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu G\u00f6ttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/4\/1251\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:00:17Z","timestamp":1760104817000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/4\/1251"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s24041251"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24041251","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]]}}}