{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T20:35:27Z","timestamp":1784234127172,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,17]],"date-time":"2024-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1708128000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004731","name":"Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LZ22A020001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LZ22A020001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004731","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004731","name":"Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022Z210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022Z210"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004731","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ningbo Major Research and Development Plan Project","award":["LZ22A020001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LZ22A020001"]}]},{"name":"Ningbo Major Research and Development Plan Project","award":["2022Z210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022Z210"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carbon fiber reinforced composites (CFRP) are susceptible to hidden damage from low velocity external impacts during their service life. To ensure the proper monitoring of the state of the composites, it is crucial to predict the location of an impact event. In this paper, fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors are affixed to the surface of a carbon fiber composite tube, and an optical sensing interrogator is used to capture the central wavelength shift of the FBG sensors due to low-velocity impacts. A discrete wavelet transform is used for noise reduction in the response signals. Then, the differences in the captured response signals of the FBG sensors at different locations of the impact were analyzed. Moreover, two methods were implemented to predict the location of low-velocity impacts, according to the differences in the captured response signals. The BP neural network-based method utilized three data sets to train the neural network, resulting in an average localization error of 20.68 mm. In contrast, the method based on error outliers selected a specific data set as the reference dataset, achieving an average localization error of 13.98 mm. The comparison of the predicted results shows that the latter approach has a higher predictive accuracy and does not require a significant amount of data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24041279","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]],"date-time":"2024-02-19T03:18:38Z","timestamp":1708312718000},"page":"1279","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Low Velocity Impact Monitoring of Composite Tubes Based on FBG Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Shengsheng","family":"Huan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart Materials and Advanced Structure Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linjiao","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart Materials and Advanced Structure Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0764-0804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tao","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart Materials and Advanced Structure Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianke","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smart Materials and Advanced Structure Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e00263","article-title":"Life cycle energy and greenhouse gas emissions implications of using carbon fiber reinforced polymers in automotive components: Front subframe case study","volume":"28","author":"Ghosh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sustain. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1166\/sam.2016.2840","article-title":"Development of a Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite Chassis Longitudinal Arm","volume":"8","author":"Yao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, Y.C., Chin, P.C., Sun, Y.P., and Wang, M.R. (2021). Design and Manufacture of Composite Landing Gear for a Light Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11020509"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2019.111086","article-title":"Non-destructive testing of light armours of CFRP after ballistic impacts by IR thermography methods","volume":"224","author":"Swiderski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2021.113923","article-title":"Design of adhesively bonded lap joints with laminated CFRP adherends: Review, challenges and new opportunities for aerospace structures","volume":"268","author":"Kupski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, F., Awadh, M.A., Abas, M., Noor, S., and Hameed, A. (2022). Optimization of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic Curing Parameters for Aerospace Application. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12094307"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2017.12.019","article-title":"Review and benchmark study on the analysis of low-velocity impact on composite laminates","volume":"86","author":"Bogenfeld","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2023.117253","article-title":"Low-velocity impact and compression-after-impact behaviors of twill woven carbon fiber\/glass fiber hybrid composite laminates with flame retardant epoxy resin","volume":"321","author":"Lei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2018.09.087","article-title":"Impact and Post-Impact Properties of Hybrid-Matrix Laminates Based on Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy and Elastomer Subjected to Low-Velocity Impacts","volume":"208","author":"Krollmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2022.107810","article-title":"Finite element analysis on impact response and damage mechanism of composite laminates under single and repeated low-velocity impact","volume":"129","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aerosp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2020.105783","article-title":"Damage accumulation mechanism of composite laminates subjected to repeated low velocity impacts","volume":"182","author":"Liao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassani, S., Mousavi, M., and Gandomi, A.H. (2021). Structural Health Monitoring in Composite Structures: A Comprehensive Review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22010153"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Sbarufatti, C., Gilioli, A., Manes, A., and Giglio, M. (2015). Annual Forum Proceedings-AHS International, American Helicopter Society."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s13634-023-01017-y","article-title":"Research on structural sound source localization method by neural network","volume":"2023","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326713","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/326713","article-title":"Experimental and Theoretical Investigations of the Impact Localization of a Passive Smart Composite Plate Fabricated Using Piezoelectric Materials","volume":"2013","author":"Dezfouli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2017.10.008","article-title":"Characterization of low-velocity impact-induced damages in carbon\/epoxy composite laminates using a poly(vinylidene fluoride\u2013trifluoroethylene) film sensor","volume":"135","author":"Bae","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Part B"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18471","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3197730","article-title":"Improving OFDR Distributed Fiber Sensing by Fibers With Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering and Image Processing","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000152","DOI":"10.1002\/adpr.202000152","article-title":"A Reversible Tuning of High Absorption in Chalcogenide\u2013Metal Stacked-Layer Structure and Its Application for Multichannel Biosensing","volume":"2","author":"Behera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Photonics Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s43074-021-00031-3","article-title":"Mid-infrared supercontinuum generation in chalcogenide glass fibers: A brief review","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"PhotoniX"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125011","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ac31c4","article-title":"Actuator placement optimization for guided waves based structural health monitoring using fiber Bragg grating sensors","volume":"30","author":"Soman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s13320-012-0065-4","article-title":"Use of FBG Sensors for SHM in Aerospace Structures","volume":"2","author":"Kahandawa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photonic Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045033","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/24\/4\/045033","article-title":"FBG and FOPS for local and global structural health monitoring on a single fiber","volume":"24","author":"Maheshwari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-021-00822-5","article-title":"Theoretical and Experimental Studies of Structural Health Monitoring of Carbon Composites with Integrated Optical Fiber Sensors Based on Fiber Bragg Gratings","volume":"40","author":"Budadin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2011.07.030","article-title":"Impact localisation with FBG for a self-healing carbon fiber composite structure","volume":"94","author":"Kirkby","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2011.08.003","article-title":"Low energy impact damage monitoring of composites using dynamic strain signals from FBG sensors\u2014Part I: Impact detection and localization","volume":"94","author":"Frieden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2016.03.063","article-title":"Impact localization on a composite stiffened panel using reference signals with efficient training process","volume":"94","author":"Jang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Part B"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2015.01.029","article-title":"Impact localization on composite wing using 1D array FBG sensor and RMS\/correlation based reference database algorithm","volume":"125","author":"Shrestha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2061","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X11424214","article-title":"A strain amplitude-based algorithm for impact localization on composite laminates","volume":"22","author":"Hiche","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5478","DOI":"10.1080\/15376494.2021.1956653","article-title":"Localization of low velocity impacts on CFRP laminates based on FBG sensors and BP neural networks","volume":"29","author":"Wen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mech. Adv. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2016.01.088","article-title":"Impact localization on composite structure using FBG sensors and novel impact localization technique based on error outliers","volume":"142","author":"Shrestha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2021.109074","article-title":"Design and characterization of the carbon fiber tube reinforced polymer composite for full ocean depth submersibles","volume":"217","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, G., Yan, X., Gao, X., and Xiao, J. (2022). Experimental and Numerical Studies on Fatigue Characteristics of CFRP Shaft Tube. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12188933"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"041008","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4007007","article-title":"120\u2009mm Prestressed Carbon Fiber\/Thermoplastic Overwrapped Gun Tubes","volume":"134","author":"Littlefield","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Press. Vessel. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2018.11.013","article-title":"Simultaneous measurement of pressure and temperature with a single FBG embedded in a polymer diaphragm","volume":"112","author":"Frizera","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2023.103455","article-title":"Localization of low velocity impact on CFRP laminate using normalized error outlier-based algorithm cooperating with Db3-wavelet threshold noise reduction and FBG sensors","volume":"80","author":"Ding","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/4\/1279\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:01:06Z","timestamp":1760104866000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/4\/1279"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,17]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s24041279"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24041279","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,17]]}}}