{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T23:05:42Z","timestamp":1782947142413,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,8]],"date-time":"2024-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1709856000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Special Support Program for High-level Talents in Zhejiang Province","award":["2021R52011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021R52011"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Real-time monitoring of rainwater is a critical issue in the development of autonomous vehicles and smart homes, while the corresponding sensors play a pivotal role in ensuring their sensitivity. Here, we study a self-powered intelligent water droplet monitoring sensor based on a solid\u2013liquid triboelectric nanogenerator (SL-TENG). The sensor comprises a SL-TENG, a signal acquisition module, a central processing unit (CPU), and a wireless transmission module, facilitating the real-time monitoring of water droplet signals. It is worth noting that the SL-TENG has self-powering characteristics and can convert the kinetic energy of water droplets into electrical energy. The excellent output performance, with open-circuit voltage of 9 V and short-circuit current of 2 \u03bcA without any treatment of the SL-TENG, can provide an effective solution to the problem that traditional sensor need battery replacement. In addition, the SL-TENG can generate stable amplitude electrical signals through water droplets, exemplified by the absence of decay in a short-circuit current within 7 days. More importantly, the sensor is equipped with intelligent analytical capabilities, allowing it to assess rainfall based on variables such as amplitude and frequency. Due to its excellent stability and intelligent analysis, this sensor can be used for roof rainwater monitoring, intravenous administration monitoring, and especially in automobile automatic wipers and other fields.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24061761","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,8]],"date-time":"2024-03-08T10:10:52Z","timestamp":1709892652000},"page":"1761","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Self-Powered Intelligent Water Droplet Monitoring Sensor Based on Solid\u2013Liquid Triboelectric Nanogenerator"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Lijie","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"},{"name":"Center for Microelectronics, Shaoxing Institute, Zhejiang University, Shaoxing 312035, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Likang","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Education Engineering Research Center of Smart Microsensors and Microsystems, College of Electronics and Information, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhi","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhengqian","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6896-328X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaoran","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Education Engineering Research Center of Smart Microsensors and Microsystems, College of Electronics and Information, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3305-553X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lufeng","family":"Che","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"},{"name":"Center for Microelectronics, Shaoxing Institute, Zhejiang University, Shaoxing 312035, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6339","DOI":"10.1021\/nl303573d","article-title":"Nanoscale Triboelectric-Effect-Enabled Energy Conversion for Sustainably Powering Portable Electronics","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2022.107495","article-title":"Integrating hydrovoltaic device with triboelectric nanogenerator to achieve simultaneous energy harvesting from water droplet and vapor","volume":"100","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4690","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201400373","article-title":"Harvesting Water Drop Energy by a Sequential Contact-Electrification and Electrostatic-Induction Process","volume":"26","author":"Lin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. 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