{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T16:16:47Z","timestamp":1778170607772,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,16]],"date-time":"2024-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710547200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Over the past decade, metasurfaces (MTSs) have emerged as a highly promising platform for the development of next-generation, miniaturized, planar devices across a wide spectrum of microwave frequencies. Among their various applications, the concept of MTS-based antennas, particularly those that are based on surface wave excitation, represents a groundbreaking advancement with significant implications for communication technologies. However, existing literature primarily focuses on MTS configurations printed on traditional substrates, largely overlooking the potential benefits of employing photosensitive substrates. This paper endeavors to pioneer this novel path. We present a specialized design of a modulated MTS printed on a silicon substrate, which acts as a photosensitive Ka-band surface wave antenna. Remarkably, the gain of this antenna can be time-modulated, achieving a variance of up to 15 dB, under low-power (below 1 W\/cm\u00b2) optical illumination at a wavelength of 971 nm. This innovative approach positions the antenna as a direct transducer, capable of converting an optically modulated signal into a microwave-modulated radiated signal, thus offering a new dimension in antenna technology and functionality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24061911","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,18]],"date-time":"2024-03-18T04:25:15Z","timestamp":1710735915000},"page":"1911","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Optically Controlled Gain Modulation for Microwave Metasurface Antennas"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1187-506X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charlotte","family":"Tripon-Canseliet","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LPEM-CNRS, PSL, Sorbonne University, 75005 Paris, France"},{"name":"ULTIMETAS, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cristian","family":"Della Giovampaola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WAVE-UP, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Pavy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ESIEE, 93162 Noisy-Le-Grand, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jean","family":"Chazelas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ULTIMETAS, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Maci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, UNISI, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1210713","article-title":"Light Propagation with Phase Discontinuities: Generalized Laws of Reflection and Refraction","volume":"334","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197401","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.110.197401","article-title":"Metamaterial Huygens\u2019 Surfaces: Tailoring Wave Fronts with Reflectionless Sheets","volume":"110","author":"Pfeiffer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"075142","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.94.075142","article-title":"Perfect control of reflection and refraction using spatially dispersive metasurfaces","volume":"94","author":"Asadchy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"041008","article-title":"Wave-front Transformation with Gradient Metasurfaces","volume":"6","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. X"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2015.2505629","article-title":"Reflectionless Wide-Angle Refracting Metasurfaces","volume":"15","author":"Wong","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231601","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0048970","article-title":"Perfect non-specular reflection with polarization control by using a locally passive metasurface sheet on a grounded dielectric slab","volume":"118","author":"Yepes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4615","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2013.2267712","article-title":"Linear-to-Circular Polarization Conversion Using Metasurface","volume":"61","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1109\/MAP.2020.3043460","article-title":"A Metasurface-Based, Ultrathin, Dual-Band, Linear-to-Circular, Reflective Polarization Converter: Easing uplinking and downlinking for wireless communication","volume":"63","author":"Nama","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256103","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.117.256103","article-title":"Synthesis of Passive Lossless Metasurfaces Using Auxiliary Fields for Reflectionless Beam Splitting and Perfect Reflection","volume":"117","author":"Epstein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2997","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.8b00626","article-title":"Metasurface-Based Ultrathin Beam Splitter with Variable Split Angle and Power Distribution","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat3292","article-title":"Gradient-index meta-surfaces as a bridge linking propagating waves and surface waves","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54002","DOI":"10.1209\/0295-5075\/101\/54002","article-title":"A theoretical study on the conversion efficiencies of gradient meta-surfaces","volume":"101","author":"Qu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Europhys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115447","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.97.115447","article-title":"Near-perfect conversion of a propagating plane wave into a surface wave using metasurfaces","volume":"97","author":"Tcvetkova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3200","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2019.2896765","article-title":"Exact Solution for Conversion of Surface Waves to Space Waves by Periodical Impenetrable Metasurfaces","volume":"67","author":"Tcvetkova","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6145","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2020.2985067","article-title":"Perfect Conversion of a TM Surface Wave Into a TM Leaky Wave by an Isotropic Periodic Metasurface Printed on a Grounded Dielectric Slab","volume":"68","author":"Tcvetkova","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2014.2377718","article-title":"Modulated Metasurface Antennas for Space: Synthesis, Analysis and Realizations","volume":"63","author":"Minatti","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3896","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2016.2590559","article-title":"Flat Optics for Leaky-Waves on Modulated Metasurfaces: Adiabatic Floquet-Wave Analysis","volume":"64","author":"Minatti","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3907","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2016.2589969","article-title":"Synthesis of Modulated-Metasurface Antennas with Amplitude, Phase, and Polarization Control","volume":"64","author":"Minatti","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1109\/MAP.2022.3169344","article-title":"Direct Numerical Inversion Methods for the Design of Surface Wave-Based Metasurface Antennas: Fundamentals, Realizations, and Perspectives","volume":"64","author":"Bodehou","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1109\/JMW.2022.3181719","article-title":"Design of Planar and Conformal, Passive, Lossless Metasurfaces That Beamform","volume":"2","author":"Budhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Microwaves"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2012.2220092","article-title":"Modeling and analysis of printed-circuit tensor impedance surfaces","volume":"61","author":"Patel","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2014.2365021","article-title":"Basic properties of checkerboard metasurfaces","volume":"14","author":"Martini","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2992","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2015.2422352","article-title":"Surface Wave Dispersion for Anisotropic Metasurfaces Constituted by Elliptical Patches","volume":"63","author":"Mencagli","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"10","article-title":"Modulated Metasurface Antennas with Enhanced Broadband Response","volume":"2021","author":"Faenzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"EuCAP"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1109\/MAP.2022.3176782","article-title":"Design Methods for Dual Polarized Metasurface Antennas: Three Simple Approaches","volume":"64","author":"Faenzi","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3212","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2010.2055812","article-title":"Scalar and tensor holographic artificial impedance surfaces","volume":"58","author":"Fong","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1109\/MMM.2022.3217961","article-title":"Low-Earth Orbit User Segment in the Ku and Ka-Band: An Overview of Antennas and RF Front-End Technologies","volume":"24","author":"Amendola","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Microw. Mag."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"70","article-title":"Modern flat panel technology for Ku\/Ka-band user terminal in LEO satellite communications systems","volume":"64","author":"Gupta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microw. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8697","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-88054-5","article-title":"Ka-band planar slotted waveguide array based on groove gap waveguide technology with a glide-symmetric holey metasurface","volume":"11","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, J., Li, T., and Dou, W. (2021, January 22\u201326). An Open-Ended Rectangular Waveguide Antenna with Metasurface at Ka-band. Proceedings of the European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), Dusseldorf, Germany.","DOI":"10.23919\/EuCAP51087.2021.9411144"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2019.2943330","article-title":"Wideband Sidelobe-Level Reduced Ka-Band Metasurface Antenna Array Fed by Substrate-Integrated Gap Waveguide Using Characteristic Mode Analysis","volume":"68","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171091","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3021201","article-title":"A Broadband High-Gain Circularly Polarized Wide Beam Scanning Leaky-Wave Antenna","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2023.07.081","article-title":"Ka-band flat panel circularly polarized antenna array for LEO satellite communication systems","volume":"78","author":"Lim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alex. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4701","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.58.4701","article-title":"Microwave response due to light-induced changes in the complex dielectric constant of semiconductors","volume":"58","author":"Grabtchak","year":"1998","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B Condens. Matter Mater. Phys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.1984.1132635","article-title":"Measurements of the Photo-Induced Complex Permittivity of Si, Ge, and Te at 9 GHz","volume":"32","author":"Ding","year":"1984","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"216","article-title":"Nano photoconductive switches for microwave applications","volume":"8631","author":"Faci","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Quantum Sens. Nanophotonic Devices X"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.1983.1131459","article-title":"Theory of Optically Controlled Millimeter-Wave Phase Shifters","volume":"31","author":"Lee","year":"1983","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.4236\/wjcmp.2018.82005","article-title":"Probing the Wave Nature of Light-Matter Interaction","volume":"8","author":"Boone","year":"2018","journal-title":"World J. Condens. Matter Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1515\/nanoph-2018-0176","article-title":"Tunable all-dielectric metasurface for phase modulation of the reflected and transmitted light via permittivity tuning of indium tin oxide","volume":"8","author":"Forouzmand","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nanophotonics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krupka, J. (2021). Microwave measurements of electromagnetic properties of materials. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14175097"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013704","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2751086","article-title":"Microwave photoconductivity decay characterization of high-purity 4H-SiC substrates","volume":"102","author":"Kumar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700108","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.201700108","article-title":"Light-Induced Tuning and Reconfiguration of Nanophotonic Structures","volume":"11","author":"Makarov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1109\/22.20032","article-title":"Optically CW-induced losses in semiconductor coplanar waveguides","volume":"37","author":"Sauerer","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"082105","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4929503","article-title":"Dielectric properties of semi-insulating silicon at microwave frequencies","volume":"107","author":"Krupka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamlath, C.D., Benton, D., and Cryan, M.J. (2012, January 2\u20135). Microwave characterisation of optically illuminated silicon. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Transparent Optical Networks (ICTON), Coventry, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTON.2012.6253782"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, X., Liu, X., Yu, S., Gan, L., Zhou, J., and Zeng, Y. (2019). Permittivity of undoped silicon in the millimeter wave range. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8080886"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10997","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.60.10997","article-title":"Behavior of photoconductivity transients due to multiple trapping by a gaussian distribution of localized states","volume":"60","author":"Grabtchak","year":"1999","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B Condens. Matter Mater. Phys."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tripon-Canseliet, C., and Chazelas, J. (2022). Millimeter-Wave Permittivity Variations of an HR Silicon Substrate from the Photoconductive Effect. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13101782"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"1532","article-title":"Efficiency of Metasurface Antennas","volume":"63","author":"Maci","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/6\/1911\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:14:47Z","timestamp":1760105687000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/6\/1911"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,16]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s24061911"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24061911","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,16]]}}}