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However, multi-domain features, including the spatial, frequency, and temporal features of EEG signals, contribute to emotion recognition, while GRUs show some limitations in capturing frequency\u2013spatial features. Thus, we proposed a hybrid architecture of convolutional neural networks and GRUs (CGRU) to effectively capture the complementary temporal features and spatial\u2013frequency features hidden in signal channels. In addition, to investigate the interactions among different brain regions during emotional information processing, we considered the functional connectivity relationship of the brain by introducing a phase-locking value to calculate the phase difference between the EEG channels to gain spatial information based on functional connectivity. Then, in the classification module, we incorporated attention constraints to address the issue of the uneven recognition contribution of EEG signal features. Finally, we conducted experiments on the DEAP and DREAMER databases. The results demonstrated that our model outperforms the other models with remarkable recognition accuracy of 99.51%, 99.60%, and 99.59% (58.67%, 65.74%, and 67.05%) on DEAP and 98.63%, 98.7%, and 98.71% (75.65%, 75.89%, and 71.71%) on DREAMER in a subject-dependent experiment (subject-independent experiment) for arousal, valence, and dominance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24061979","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,20]],"date-time":"2024-03-20T09:14:33Z","timestamp":1710926073000},"page":"1979","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["FC-TFS-CGRU: A Temporal\u2013Frequency\u2013Spatial Electroencephalography Emotion Recognition Model Based on Functional Connectivity and a Convolutional Gated Recurrent Unit Hybrid Architecture"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9530-3375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xia","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Computing and Service Technology for Folk Song, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Modern Teaching Technology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yumei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Computing and Service Technology for Folk Song, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Modern Teaching Technology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingjing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer and Information Technology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang 473061, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Honghong","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Computing and Service Technology for Folk Song, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Modern Teaching Technology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaojun","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Computing and Service Technology for Folk Song, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Modern Teaching Technology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi\u2019an 710062, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2020.08.002","article-title":"Internet of emotional people: Towards continual affective computing cross cultures via audiovisual signals\u2014ScienceDirect","volume":"114","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Future Gener. 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