{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T14:06:38Z","timestamp":1782828398127,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]],"date-time":"2024-03-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711065600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MOST\u2014Sustainable Mobility National Research Center","award":["1033 17\/06\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1033 17\/06\/2022"]}]},{"name":"MOST\u2014Sustainable Mobility National Research Center","award":["CN00000023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CN00000023"]}]},{"name":"MOST\u2014Sustainable Mobility National Research Center","award":["2023\/05860-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023\/05860-0"]}]},{"name":"FAPESP (Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa de S\u00e3o Paulo\u2014S\u00e3o Paulo Research Foundation, Brazil)","award":["1033 17\/06\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1033 17\/06\/2022"]}]},{"name":"FAPESP (Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa de S\u00e3o Paulo\u2014S\u00e3o Paulo Research Foundation, Brazil)","award":["CN00000023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CN00000023"]}]},{"name":"FAPESP (Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa de S\u00e3o Paulo\u2014S\u00e3o Paulo Research Foundation, Brazil)","award":["2023\/05860-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023\/05860-0"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In a LoRaWAN network, the backend is generally distributed as Software as a Service (SaaS) based on container technology, and recently, a containerized version of the LoRaWAN node stack is also available. Exploiting the disaggregation of LoRaWAN components, this paper focuses on the emulation of complex end-to-end architecture and infrastructures for smart city scenarios, leveraging on lightweight virtualization technology. The fundamental metrics to gain insights and evaluate the scaling complexity of the emulated scenario are defined. Then, the methodology is applied to use cases taken from a real LoRaWAN application in a smart city with hundreds of nodes. As a result, the proposed approach based on containers allows for the following: (i) deployments of functionalities on diverse distributed hosts; (ii) the use of the very same SW running on real nodes; (iii) the simple configuration and management of the emulation process; (iv) affordable costs. Both premise and cloud servers are considered as emulation platforms to evaluate the resource request and emulation cost of the proposed approach. For instance, emulating one hour of an entire LoRaWAN network with hundreds of nodes requires very affordable hardware that, if realized with a cloud-based computing platform, may cost less than USD 1.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24072024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]],"date-time":"2024-03-22T05:10:53Z","timestamp":1711084253000},"page":"2024","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["End-to-End Emulation of LoRaWAN Architecture and Infrastructure in Complex Smart City Scenarios Exploiting Containers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1656-6824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimiliano","family":"Gaffurini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2046-0720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Flammini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6349-4410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7665-7031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dhiego","family":"Fernandes Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Control and Automation Engineering, Sao Paulo State University, S\u00e3o Paulo 01049-010, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3375-096X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo Paciencia","family":"Godoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Control and Automation Engineering, Sao Paulo State University, S\u00e3o Paulo 01049-010, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5012-443X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emiliano","family":"Sisinni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2020.110872","article-title":"Managing latency in edge\u2013cloud environment","volume":"172","author":"Bulej","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. 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