{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T19:00:04Z","timestamp":1780513204462,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711929600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["12274357"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12274357"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62005231"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005231"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2023J06011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023J06011"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2022J01064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022J01064"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province of China","award":["12274357"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12274357"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province of China","award":["62005231"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005231"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province of China","award":["2023J06011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023J06011"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province of China","award":["2022J01064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022J01064"]}]},{"name":"Xiaomi Young Talents Program\/Xiaomi Foundation","award":["12274357"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12274357"]}]},{"name":"Xiaomi Young Talents Program\/Xiaomi Foundation","award":["62005231"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005231"]}]},{"name":"Xiaomi Young Talents Program\/Xiaomi Foundation","award":["2023J06011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023J06011"]}]},{"name":"Xiaomi Young Talents Program\/Xiaomi Foundation","award":["2022J01064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022J01064"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, soft robotic sensors have rapidly advanced to endow robots with the ability to interact with the external environment. Here, we propose a polymer optical fiber (POF) sensor with sensitive and stable detection performance for strain, bending, twisting, and pressing. Thus, we can map the real-time output light intensity of POF sensors to the spatial morphology of the elastomer. By leveraging the intrinsic correlations of neighboring sensors and machine learning algorithms, we realize the spatially resolved detection of the pressing and multi-dimensional deformation of elastomers. Specifically, the developed intelligent sensing system can effectively recognize the two-dimensional indentation position with a prediction accuracy as large as ~99.17%. The average prediction accuracy of combined strain and twist is ~98.4% using the random forest algorithm. In addition, we demonstrate an integrated intelligent glove for the recognition of hand gestures with a high recognition accuracy of 99.38%. Our work holds promise for applications in soft robots for interactive tasks in complex environments, providing robots with multidimensional proprioceptive perception. And it also can be applied in smart wearable sensing, human prosthetics, and human\u2013machine interaction interfaces.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24072253","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]],"date-time":"2024-04-01T05:42:43Z","timestamp":1711950163000},"page":"2253","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Soft Polymer Optical Fiber Sensors for Intelligent Recognition of Elastomer Deformations and Wearable Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Nicheng","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electromagnetics and Acoustics and Key Laboratory of Electromagnetic Wave Science and Detection Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pengao","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electromagnetics and Acoustics and Key Laboratory of Electromagnetic Wave Science and Detection Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electromagnetics and Acoustics and Key Laboratory of Electromagnetic Wave Science and Detection Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4766-2784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinhui","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electromagnetics and Acoustics and Key Laboratory of Electromagnetic Wave Science and Detection Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-018-0002-2","article-title":"3D printing of soft robotic systems","volume":"3","author":"Wallin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaz9239","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aaz9239","article-title":"Electronic skins and machine learning for intelligent soft robots","volume":"5","author":"Shih","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14543","article-title":"Design, fabrication and control of soft robots","volume":"521","author":"Rus","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201203002","article-title":"Robotic tentacles with three-dimensional mobility based on flexible elastomers","volume":"25","author":"Martinez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201504755","article-title":"Stretchable, skin-mountable, and wearable strain sensors and their potential applications: A review","volume":"26","author":"Amjadi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4671","article-title":"Pursuing prosthetic electronic skin","volume":"15","author":"Chortos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5997","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201302240","article-title":"25th Anniversary Article: The evolution of electronic skin (E-skin): A brief history, design considerations, and recent progress","volume":"25","author":"Hammock","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4343","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.8b01587","article-title":"High performance humidity fluctuation sensor for wearable devices via a bioinspired atomic-precise tunable graphene-polymer heterogeneous sensing junction","volume":"30","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5747","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6747","article-title":"Stretchable silicon nanoribbon electronics for skin prosthesis","volume":"5","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, J., Yang, C., Dai, Q., and Kong, L. (2019). Soft and stretchable polymeric optical waveguide-based sensors for wearable and biomedical applications. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173771"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"114204","article-title":"Wearable fiber-optic sensors: Recent advances and future opportunities","volume":"53","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Sin. Phys. Mech. Astron."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190022","DOI":"10.29026\/oea.2020.190022","article-title":"Ultrasensitive skin-like wearable optical sensors based on glass micro\/nanofibers","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opto-Electron. Adv."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800296","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.201800296","article-title":"Sensitive and wearable optical microfiber sensor for human health monitoring","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaai7529","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aai7529","article-title":"Optoelectronically innervated soft prosthetic hand via stretchable optical waveguides","volume":"1","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002206","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202002206","article-title":"Self-assembled wavy optical microfiber for stretchable wearable sensor","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.1007\/s42765-022-00163-6","article-title":"Optical micro\/nano fibers enabled smart textiles for human\u2013machine interface","volume":"4","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Fiber Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101698","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202101698","article-title":"Soft Optoelectronic sensors with deep learning for gesture recognition","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1177\/0040517519868168","article-title":"A fiber Bragg grating-based smart wearable belt for monitoring knee joint postures","volume":"90","author":"Abro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Text. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2442","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2011.2138132","article-title":"FBG sensing glove for monitoring hand posture","volume":"11","author":"Mendes","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000079","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202000079","article-title":"Flexible liquid-filled fiber adapter enabled wearable optical sensors","volume":"5","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2577","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2018.2877434","article-title":"Optical microfiber sensors: Sensing mechanisms, and recent advances","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301415","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202301415","article-title":"Packaged Elastomeric optical fiber sensors for healthcare monitoring and human-machine interaction","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c02566","article-title":"Soft and stretchable optical waveguide: Light delivery and manipulation at complex biointerfaces creating unique windows for on-body sensing","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.4.001285","article-title":"Highly flexible and stretchable optical strain sensing for human motion detection","volume":"4","author":"Guo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau2489","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aau2489","article-title":"Soft optoelectronic sensory foams with proprioception","volume":"3","author":"Shepherd","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aba5504","article-title":"Stretchable distributed fiber-optic sensors","volume":"370","author":"Bai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-37158-9","article-title":"Origami-based integration of robots that sense, decide, and respond","volume":"14","author":"Yan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabn0495","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abn0495","article-title":"All-printed soft human-machine interface for robotic physicochemical sensing","volume":"7","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaav1488","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aav1488","article-title":"Soft robot perception using embedded soft sensors and recurrent neural networks","volume":"4","author":"Thuruthel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2019.05.054","article-title":"Synergistic sensing of stratified structures enhancing touch recognition for multifunctional interactive electronics","volume":"62","author":"Liao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabh3530","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abh3530","article-title":"Photonic skins based on flexible organic microlaser arrays","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s10994-006-6226-1","article-title":"Extremely randomized trees","volume":"63","author":"Geurts","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"745","article-title":"Advance and prospects of AdaBoost algorithm","volume":"39","author":"Ying","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Autom. Sin."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1109\/TNNLS.2015.2424995","article-title":"Extreme learning machine for multilayer perceptron","volume":"27","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learn. Syst."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navada, A., Ansari, A.N., Patil, S., and Sonkamble, B.A. (2011, January 27\u201328). Overview of use of decision tree algorithms in machine learning. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Control and System Graduate Research Colloquium, Shah Alam, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSGRC.2011.5991826"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/7\/2253\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:22:01Z","timestamp":1760106121000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/7\/2253"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s24072253"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24072253","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]]}}}