{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T19:01:11Z","timestamp":1772910071906,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,7]],"date-time":"2024-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712448000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000015","name":"U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DE-NA0004109"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE-NA0004109"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000015","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) has emerged as a viable approach to mitigate range anxiety by ensuring continuous and uninterrupted charging for electric vehicles in motion. DWC systems rely on the length of the transmitter, which can be categorized into long-track transmitters and segmented coil arrays. The segmented coil array, favored for its heightened efficiency and reduced electromagnetic interference, stands out as the preferred option. However, in such DWC systems, the need arises to detect the vehicle\u2019s position, specifically to activate the transmitter coils aligned with the receiver pad and de-energize uncoupled transmitter coils. This paper introduces various machine learning algorithms for precise vehicle position determination, accommodating diverse ground clearances of electric vehicles and various speeds. Through testing eight different machine learning algorithms and comparing the results, the random forest algorithm emerged as superior, displaying the lowest error in predicting the actual position.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24072346","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,8]],"date-time":"2024-04-08T06:04:58Z","timestamp":1712556298000},"page":"2346","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Vehicle Position Detection Based on Machine Learning Algorithms in Dynamic Wireless Charging"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0284-7221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milad","family":"Behnamfar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA"}]},{"given":"Alexander","family":"Stevenson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA"}]},{"given":"Mohd","family":"Tariq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA"}]},{"given":"Arif","family":"Sarwat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2835378","article-title":"Wireless power transfer\u2014An overview","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behnamfar, M., Tariq, M., and Sarwat, A.I. (2023, January 4\u20138). Novel Control Method With Five-Phase Interleaved Boost Converter to Reduce Power Pulsation in Dynamic Charging of Electric Vehicle. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE Wireless Power Technology Conference and Expo (WPTCE), San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WPTCE56855.2023.10215525"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1109\/JESTPE.2023.3301579","article-title":"Design of a 60kW EV Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer System with Dual Transmitters and Dual Receivers","volume":"12","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5244","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2896358","article-title":"A new coil structure and its optimization design with constant output voltage and constant output current for electric vehicle dynamic wireless charging","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3060","DOI":"10.1109\/TTE.2022.3217898","article-title":"Auto-segment control system with high spatially average power for dynamic inductive power transfer","volume":"9","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrif."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1109\/JESTPE.2014.2308307","article-title":"Detection of EVs on IPT highways","volume":"2","author":"Nagendra","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Tan, L., Huang, X., Zhang, M., Zhang, Z., and Li, J. (2019). Power stabilization based on switching control of segmented transmitting coils for multi loads in static-dynamic hybrid wireless charging system at traffic lights. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12040607"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6839","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2793275","article-title":"EMI reduction methods in wireless power transfer system for drone electrical charger using tightly coupled three-phase resonant magnetic field","volume":"65","author":"Song","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasan, N., Wang, H., Saha, T., and Pantic, Z. (2015, January 20\u201324). A novel position sensorless power transfer control of lumped coil-based in-motion wireless power transfer systems. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECCE.2015.7309742"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2885942","article-title":"Precise vehicle location detection method using a wireless power transfer (WPT) system","volume":"68","author":"Shin","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12807","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2022.3144591","article-title":"Large-area free-positioning wireless power transfer to movable receivers","volume":"69","author":"Panhwar","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1109\/TTE.2019.2905981","article-title":"A coil detection system for dynamic wireless charging of electric vehicle","volume":"5","author":"Patil","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrif."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1109\/TTE.2018.2870339","article-title":"Analysis, optimization, and demonstration of a vehicular detection system intended for dynamic wireless charging applications","volume":"5","author":"Azad","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrif."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Wan, L., Cai, C., Xue, M., Du, Y., and Zhang, J. (2024). A Dual-Side Magnetic Integration Based Receiver Detection Method of Long-Track DWPT System. IEEE Trans. Power Electron.","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2024.3374825"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simonazzi, M., Sandrolini, L., and Mariscotti, A. (2022). Receiver\u2013Coil Location Detection in a Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer System for Electric Vehicle Charging. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22062317"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7630","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2803719","article-title":"Sensorless control of the charging process of a dynamic inductive power transfer system with an interleaved nine-phase boost converter","volume":"65","author":"Ruffo","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6741","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2019.2963438","article-title":"A new coupling structure and position detection method for segmented control dynamic wireless power transfer systems","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2021.3103489","article-title":"Receiver position estimation method for multitransmitter WPT system based on machine learning","volume":"58","author":"Shen","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2010.10.031","article-title":"Comparing machine learning classifiers in potential distribution modelling","volume":"38","author":"Lorena","year":"2011","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roy, S., Tufail, S., Tariq, M., and Sarwat, A. (2024). Photovoltaic Inverter Failure Mechanism Estimation Using Unsupervised Machine Learning and Reliability Assessment. IEEE Trans. Reliab., 1\u201315.","DOI":"10.1109\/TR.2024.3359540"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ray, S. (2019, January 14\u201316). A quick review of machine learning algorithms. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Machine Learning, Big Data, Cloud and Parallel Computing (COMITCon), Faridabad, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMITCon.2019.8862451"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.21037\/atm.2019.03.29","article-title":"Predictive analytics with gradient boosting in clinical medicine","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2004.05.012","article-title":"Bayesian network classifiers versus selective k-NN classifier","volume":"38","author":"Pernkopf","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Awad, M., Khanna, R., Awad, M., and Khanna, R. (2015). Efficient Learning Machines: Theories, Concepts, and Applications for Engineers and System Designers, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4302-5990-9"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Singh, A., Thakur, N., and Sharma, A. (2016, January 16\u201318). A review of supervised machine learning algorithms. Proceedings of the 2016 3rd International Conference on Computing for Sustainable Global Development (INDIACom), New Delhi, India."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Massaoudi, M., Refaat, S.S., Abu-Rub, H., Chihi, I., and Wesleti, F.S. (2020, January 13\u201314). A hybrid Bayesian ridge regression-CWT-catboost model for PV power forecasting. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Kansas Power and Energy Conference (KPEC), Manhattan, KS, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/KPEC47870.2020.9167596"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1002\/wics.1198","article-title":"Linear regression","volume":"4","author":"Su","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Comput. Stat."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdolrasol, M.G.M., Hussain, S.M.S., Ustun, T.S., Sarker, M.R., Hannan, M.A., Mohamed, R., Ali, J.A., Mekhilef, S., and Milad, A. (2021). Artificial Neural Networks Based Optimization Techniques: A Review. Electronics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10212689"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/7\/2346\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:24:28Z","timestamp":1760106268000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/7\/2346"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,7]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s24072346"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24072346","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,7]]}}}