{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T20:49:38Z","timestamp":1775076578505,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]],"date-time":"2024-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713484800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Surprisingly little is known about how the home environment influences the behaviour of pet cats. This study aimed to determine how factors in the home environment (e.g., with or without outdoor access, urban vs. rural, presence of a child) and the season influences the daily behaviour of cats. Using accelerometer data and a validated machine learning model, behaviours including being active, eating, grooming, littering, lying, scratching, sitting, and standing were quantified for 28 pet cats. Generalized estimating equation models were used to determine the effects of different environmental conditions. Increasing cat age was negatively correlated with time spent active (p &lt; 0.05). Cats with outdoor access (n = 18) were less active in winter than in summer (p &lt; 0.05), but no differences were observed between seasons for indoor-only (n = 10) cats. Cats living in rural areas (n = 7) spent more time eating than cats in urban areas (n = 21; p &lt; 0.05). Cats living in single-cat households (n = 12) spent more time lying but less time sitting than cats living in multi-cat households (n = 16; p &lt; 0.05). Cats in households with at least one child (n = 20) spent more time standing in winter (p &lt; 0.05), and more time lying but less time sitting in summer compared to cats in households with no children (n = 8; p &lt; 0.05). This study clearly shows that the home environment has a major impact on cat behaviour.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24082623","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]],"date-time":"2024-04-19T10:53:17Z","timestamp":1713523997000},"page":"2623","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["How Lazy Are Pet Cats Really? Using Machine Learning and Accelerometry to Get a Glimpse into the Behaviour of Privately Owned Cats in Different Households"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0554-5125","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michelle","family":"Smit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Environmental, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7398-2653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rene A.","family":"Corner-Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Environmental, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2131-4012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ina","family":"Draganova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Environmental, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3049-1835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher J.","family":"Andrews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Environmental, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7460-9351","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David G.","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Environmental, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Companion Animals New Zealand (2020). Companion Animals in New Zealand 2020, Companion Animals New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2019.104841","article-title":"A systematic review of social and environmental factors and their implications for indoor cat welfare","volume":"220","author":"Farnworth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"6296315","article-title":"Environmental Aspects of Domestic Cat Care and Management: Implications for Cat Welfare","volume":"2016","author":"Judith","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1016\/0007-1935(86)90109-0","article-title":"Indicators of poor welfare","volume":"142","author":"Broom","year":"1986","journal-title":"Br. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Mellor, D.J., and Reid, C.S.W. (1994). Improving the Well-Being of Animals in the Research Environment, New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART)."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2009.03.018","article-title":"Behavioural biologists don\u2019t agree on what constitutes behaviour","volume":"78","author":"Levitis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1095335","article-title":"Early Taming of the Cat in Cyprus","volume":"304","author":"Vigne","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2009.09.012","article-title":"Potential risk factors associated with feline behaviour problems","volume":"121","author":"Amat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.7120\/09627286.26.1.001","article-title":"The burden of domestication: A representative study of welfare in privately owned cats in Denmark","volume":"26","author":"Forkman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anim. Welf."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2005.02.003","article-title":"Owner and cat features influence the quality of life of the cat","volume":"94","author":"Adamelli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, P., and Bateson, P. (1993). Measuring Behaviour: An Introductory Guide, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139168342"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1163\/156853974X00534","article-title":"Observational Study of Behavior: Sampling Methods","volume":"49","author":"Altmann","year":"1974","journal-title":"Behaviour"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, D.D., Kays, R., Wikelski, M., Wilson, R., and Klimley, A.P. (2013). Observing the unwatchable through acceleration logging of animal behavior. Anim. Biotelemetry, 1.","DOI":"10.1186\/2050-3385-1-20"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2005.01.010","article-title":"A new technique for monitoring the detailed behaviour of terrestrial animals: A case study with the domestic cat","volume":"94","author":"Watanabe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Kestler, J., and Wilson, M. (2015). Acceleration Derived Feral Cat (Felis catus) Behaviour during Ground Nesting Bird-Breeding Season on the Island of Schiermonnikoog. [BSc. Thesis, Van Hall Larenstein, University of Applied Sciences]."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13566","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92896-4","article-title":"Quantifying finer-scale behaviours using self-organising maps (SOMs) to link accelerometery signatures with behavioural patterns in free-roaming terrestrial animals","volume":"11","author":"Galea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smit, M., Ikurior, S.J., Corner-Thomas, R.A., Andrews, C.J., and Thomas, D.G. (2023). The Use of Triaxial Accelerometers and Machine Learning Algorithms for Behavioural Identification in Domestic Cats (Felis catus): A Validation Study. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23167165"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"13","article-title":"Development and validation of a body condition score system for cats: A clinical tool","volume":"25","author":"Laflamme","year":"1997","journal-title":"Feline Pract."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"RStudio Team (2021). RStudio: Integrated Development for R, version 4.1.1, RStudio."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfms.2009.07.011","article-title":"American Association of Feline Practitioners. Senior Care Guidelines","volume":"11","author":"Pittari","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfms.2009.12.006","article-title":"AAFP-AAHA: Feline Life Stage Guidelines","volume":"12","author":"Vogt","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Time and Date (2023, November 29). Palmerston North, New Zealand\u2014Sunrise, Sunset, and Daylength. Available online: https:\/\/www.timeanddate.com\/sun\/new-zealand\/palmerston-north."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Andrews, C.J. (2015). The Assessment of Activity in Colony-Housed Domestic Cats (Felis catus): A Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of\n          Masters of Science in Zoology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Massey University]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2022.105584","article-title":"Association of age and body condition with physical activity of domestic cats (Felis catus)","volume":"248","author":"Smit","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"National Research Council (2006). Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973574","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.973574","article-title":"Do intense weather events influence dogs\u2019 and cats\u2019 behavior? Analysis of owner reported data in Italy","volume":"9","author":"Palestrini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1080\/03014220709510087","article-title":"Seventeen years of predation by one suburban cat in New Zealand","volume":"34","author":"Flux","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Z. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Hansen, C.M. (2010). Movements and Predation Activity of Feral and Domestic cats (Felis catus) on Banks Peninsula. [Ph.D. Thesis, Lincoln University]."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1007\/s11252-016-0634-1","article-title":"Annual variation in prey composition of domestic cats in rural and urban environment","volume":"20","author":"Gryz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Urban Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2017.09.006","article-title":"European wildcat and domestic cat: Do they really differ?","volume":"22","author":"Berteselli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Behav."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2012.09.004","article-title":"Daily rhythm of total activity pattern in domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) maintained in two different housing conditions","volume":"8","author":"Piccione","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Behav. Clin. Appl. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2018.02.001","article-title":"Pilot study evaluating the effect of feeding method on overall activity of neutered indoor pet cats","volume":"25","author":"Naik","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Behav."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2015.05.006","article-title":"Quantification of activity in domestic cats (Felis catus) by accelerometry","volume":"173","author":"Andrews","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2007.00367.x","article-title":"Evaluation of a digitally integrated accelerometer-based activity monitor for the measurement of activity in cats","volume":"35","author":"Lascelles","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sordo, L., Breheny, C., T\u00f8rnqvist-Johnsen, C., Gunn-Moore, D.A., Halls, V., Cotter, A., and Caney, S.M.A. (2020). Prevalence of disease and age-related behavioural changes in cats: Past and present. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci7030085"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2018.00278","article-title":"Compatibility of Cats with Children in the Family","volume":"5","author":"Hart","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.12147","article-title":"Effects of photoperiod on food intake, activity and metabolic rate in adult neutered male cats","volume":"98","author":"Kappen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parker, M., Lamoureux, S., Challet, E., Deputte, B., Biourge, V., and Serra, J. (2019). Daily rhythms in food intake and locomotor activity in a colony of domestic cats. Anim. Biotelemetry, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40317-019-0188-0"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10044","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.5537","article-title":"Global climate change and invariable photoperiods: A mismatch that jeopardizes animal fitness","volume":"9","author":"Walker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2016.09.029","article-title":"Factors determining the home ranges of pet cats: A meta-analysis","volume":"203","author":"Hall","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"65","article-title":"Roaming habits of pet cats on the suburban fringe in Perth, Western Australia: What size buffer zone is needed to protect wildlife in reserves?","volume":"34","author":"Lilith","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aust. Zool."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smit, M. (2023, December 18). Weekly Data Cats for Home Trial. Available online: https:\/\/figshare.com\/articles\/dataset\/How_lazy_are_pet_cats_really_Using_machine_learning_and_accelerometry_to_get_a_glimpse_into_the_behaviour_of_privately_owned_cats_in_different_households\/24848292.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24082623"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/8\/2623\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:31:13Z","timestamp":1760106673000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/8\/2623"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s24082623"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24082623","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]]}}}