{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T09:24:26Z","timestamp":1772011466980,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]],"date-time":"2024-04-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713916800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Flemish Research Foundation (FWO)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>During the implementation of the Internet of Things (IoT), the performance of communication and sensing antennas that are embedded in smart surfaces or smart devices can be affected by objects in their reactive near field due to detuning and antenna mismatch. Matching networks have been proposed to re-establish impedance matching when antennas become detuned due to environmental factors. In this work, the change in the reflection coefficient at the antenna, due to the presence of objects, is first characterized as a function of the frequency and object distance by applying Gaussian process regression on experimental data. Based on this characterization, for random object positions, it is shown through simulation that a dynamic environment can lower the reliability of a matching network by up to 90%, depending on the type of object, the probability distribution of the object distance, and the required bandwidth. As an alternative to complex and power-consuming real-time adaptive matching, a new, resilient network tuning strategy is proposed that takes into account these random variations. This new approach increases the reliability of the system by 10% to 40% in these dynamic environment scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24092689","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]],"date-time":"2024-04-24T03:56:31Z","timestamp":1713930991000},"page":"2689","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Reliability Analysis and Optimization of a Reconfigurable Matching Network for Communication and Sensing Antennas in Dynamic Environments through Gaussian Process Regression"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2112-4582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seppe","family":"Van Brandt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Internet Technology and Data Science Lab, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University and Imec, 9052 Gent, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0414-9147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kamil Yavuz","family":"Kapusuz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internet Technology and Data Science Lab, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University and Imec, 9052 Gent, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9144-9799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joryan","family":"Sennesael","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internet Technology and Data Science Lab, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University and Imec, 9052 Gent, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1366-2604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sam","family":"Lemey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internet Technology and Data Science Lab, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University and Imec, 9052 Gent, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0633-0815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick","family":"Van Torre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internet Technology and Data Science Lab, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University and Imec, 9052 Gent, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4003-0098","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo","family":"Verhaevert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internet Technology and Data Science Lab, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University and Imec, 9052 Gent, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4710-8249","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanja","family":"Van Hecke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internet Technology and Data Science Lab, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University and Imec, 9052 Gent, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8139-2736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hendrik","family":"Rogier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internet Technology and Data Science Lab, Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University and Imec, 9052 Gent, Belgium"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopetz, H., and Steiner, W. (2022). Real-Time Systems: Design Principles for Distributed Embedded Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-11992-7"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2021.3103320","article-title":"6G Internet of Things: A comprehensive survey","volume":"9","author":"Nguyen","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2803740","article-title":"How can heterogeneous internet of things build our future: A survey","volume":"20","author":"Qiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cirillo, F., Wu, F.J., Solmaz, G., and Kovacs, E. (2019). Embracing the future internet of things. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19020351"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2020.3023041","article-title":"Industry 4.0 implementation challenges and opportunities: A managerial perspective","volume":"15","author":"Bajic","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majid, M., Habib, S., Javed, A.R., Rizwan, M., Srivastava, G., Gadekallu, T.R., and Lin, J.C.W. (2022). Applications of wireless sensor networks and internet of things frameworks in the industry revolution 4.0: A systematic literature review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22062087"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s40327-018-0063-8","article-title":"What is a smart device-a conceptualisation within the paradigm of the internet of things","volume":"6","author":"Renukappa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vis. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2014.2357493","article-title":"Smart surfaces: Large area electronics systems for Internet of Things enabled by energy harvesting","volume":"102","author":"Roselli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2260","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2021.3105908","article-title":"High-performance air-filled multiband antenna for seamless integration into smart surfaces","volume":"20","author":"Claus","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salonen, P., Rahmat-Samii, Y., and Kivikoski, M. (2004, January 20\u201325). Wearable antennas in the vicinity of human body. Proceedings of the IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Symposium, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/APS.2004.1329675"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"858","article-title":"Measured CMOS switched high-quality capacitors in a reconfigurable matching network","volume":"54","author":"Sjoblom","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II Express Briefs"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pesel, R.G., Attar, S.S., and Mansour, R.R. (2015, January 7\u201310). MEMS-based switched-capacitor banks for impedance matching networks. Proceedings of the 2015 European Microwave Conference (EuMC), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/EuMC.2015.7345939"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3937","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2013.2263215","article-title":"A reconfigurable SIW cavity-backed slot antenna with one octave tuning range","volume":"61","author":"Saghati","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1109\/TCPMT.2017.2786549","article-title":"A wideband reconfigurable impedance matching network for complex loads","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Compon. Packag. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fukuda, A., Furuta, T., Okazaki, H., and Narahashi, S. (2006, January 11\u201316). A 0.9\u20135-GHz wide-range 1W-class reconfigurable power amplifier employing RF-MEMS switches. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MWSYM.2006.249776"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2012.2230022","article-title":"A new method for matching network adaptive control","volume":"61","author":"Gu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2016.2546244","article-title":"Experimental investigation of adaptive impedance matching for a MIMO terminal with CMOS-SOI tuners","volume":"64","author":"Vasilev","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2005.863396","article-title":"Reconfigurable RF impedance tuner for match control in broadband wireless devices","volume":"54","author":"Whatley","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2620","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2008.2006105","article-title":"Complete design and measurement methodology for a tunable RF impedance-matching network","volume":"56","author":"Hoarau","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hur, B., Eisenstadt, W.R., and Melde, K.L. (2019). Testing and validation of adaptive impedance matching system for broadband antenna. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8091055"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Yasir, Y.I., Ojaroudi Parchin, N., Tu, Y., Abdulkhaleq, A.M., Elfergani, I.T., Rodriguez, J., and Abd-Alhameed, R.A. (2020). A varactor-based very compact tunable filter with wide tuning range for 4G and Sub-6 GHz 5G communications. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164538"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1109\/LMWC.2021.3083184","article-title":"Tunable impedance-matching filters","volume":"31","author":"Estrada","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Microw. Wirel. Compon. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Li, S., and Yuan, J. (2023). A compact fourth-order tunable bandpass filter based on varactor-loaded step-impedance resonators. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12112539"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1111","article-title":"Compact AFSIW antenna with integrated digitally controlled impedance tuner for smart surfaces","volume":"71","author":"Sennesael","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II Express Briefs"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"833","article-title":"An automatic antenna tuning system using only RF signal amplitudes","volume":"55","author":"Firrao","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II Express Briefs"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2894","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSI.2011.2158700","article-title":"An analytical algorithm for pi-network impedance tuners","volume":"58","author":"Gu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I Regul. Pap."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-map.2012.0320","article-title":"Automatic impedance matching and antenna tuning using quantum genetic algorithms for wireless and mobile communications","volume":"7","author":"Tan","year":"2013","journal-title":"IET Microw. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robichaud, A., Alameh, A.H., Nabki, F., and Deslandes, D. (2013, January 8\u201311). An agile matching network using phase detection for antenna tuning. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 20th International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems (ICECS), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECS.2013.6815524"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-map.2015.0315","article-title":"Wearable self-tuning antenna for emergency rescue operations","volume":"10","author":"Baroni","year":"2016","journal-title":"IET Microw. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14065","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71056-0","article-title":"Improved adaptive impedance matching for RF front-end systems of wireless transceivers","volume":"10","author":"Alibakhshikenari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Y., Moritz, J., and Zhu, X. (2011, January 7\u201310). Adaptive impedance matching and antenna tuning for green software-defined and cognitive radio. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE 54th International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems (MWSCAS), Seoul, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/MWSCAS.2011.6026413"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2199","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2018.2809626","article-title":"Highly efficient impulse-radio ultra-wideband cavity-backed slot antenna in stacked air-filled substrate integrated waveguide technology","volume":"66","author":"Lemey","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2021.3059449","article-title":"Multipolarization-reconfigurable air-filled substrate integrated waveguide cavity-backed slot antenna","volume":"20","author":"Kapusuz","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Pozar, D.M. (2011). Microwave Engineering, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Couraud, B., Vauche, R., Daskalakis, S.N., Flynn, D., Deleruyelle, T., Kussener, E., and Assimonis, S. (2021). Internet of things: A review on theory based impedance matching techniques for energy efficient RF systems. J. Low Power Electron. Appl., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jlpea11020016"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.1021\/ac60214a047","article-title":"Smoothing and differentiation of data by simplified least squares procedures","volume":"36","author":"Savitzky","year":"1964","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, C.K., and Rasmussen, C.E. (2006). Gaussian Processes for Machine Learning, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3206.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Duvenaud, D. (2014). Automatic Model Construction with Gaussian Processes. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge]."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1002\/qre.1924","article-title":"A tutorial on Latin hypercube design of experiments","volume":"32","author":"Viana","year":"2016","journal-title":"Qual. Reliab. Eng. Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/7.4.308","article-title":"A simplex method for function minimization","volume":"7","author":"Nelder","year":"1965","journal-title":"Comput. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5111","DOI":"10.1021\/jp970984n","article-title":"Global optimization by basin-hopping and the lowest energy structures of Lennard-Jones clusters containing up to 110 atoms","volume":"101","author":"Wales","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. A"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/9\/2689\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:32:58Z","timestamp":1760106778000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/9\/2689"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s24092689"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24092689","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]]}}}