{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:01:15Z","timestamp":1760144475039,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]],"date-time":"2024-04-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713916800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Magnetic resonance (MR) with sodium (23Na) is a noninvasive tool providing quantitative biochemical information regarding physiology, cellular metabolism, and viability, with the potential to extend MR beyond anatomical proton imaging. However, when using clinical scanners, the low detectable 23Na signal and the low 23Na gyromagnetic ratio require the design of dedicated radiofrequency (RF) coils tuned to the 23Na Larmor frequency and sequences, as well as the development of dedicated phantoms for testing the image quality, and an MR scanner with multinuclear spectroscopy (MNS) capabilities. In this work, we propose a hardware and software setup for evaluating the potential of 23Na magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with a clinical scanner. In particular, the reliability of the proposed setup and the reproducibility of the measurements were verified by multiple acquisitions from a 3T MR scanner using a homebuilt RF volume coil and a dedicated sequence for the imaging of a phantom specifically designed for evaluating the accuracy of the technique. The final goal of this study is to propose a setup for standardizing clinical and research 23Na MRI protocols.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24092716","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]],"date-time":"2024-04-24T10:18:36Z","timestamp":1713953916000},"page":"2716","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Hardware and Software Setup for Quantitative 23Na Magnetic Resonance Imaging at 3T: A Phantom Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4317-4161","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulio","family":"Giovannetti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4486-8878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Flori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Unit, Fondazione G. Monasterio CNR-Regione Toscana, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicola","family":"Martini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Unit, Fondazione G. Monasterio CNR-Regione Toscana, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0579-3279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filippo","family":"Cademartiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Fondazione G. Monasterio CNR-Regione Toscana, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0915-915X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni Donato","family":"Aquaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgical, Medical, Molecular and Critical Area Pathology, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4049-184X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Pingitore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Frijia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Unit, Fondazione G. Monasterio CNR-Regione Toscana, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1973.tb30799.x","article-title":"The observation and general interpretation of sodium magnetic resonance in biological material","volume":"204","author":"Berendsen","year":"1973","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1973.tb30786.x","article-title":"NMR studies of sodium and potassium in various biological tissues","volume":"204","author":"Magnuson","year":"1973","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.156.1.4001399","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging performance: A comparison of sodium and hydrogen","volume":"156","author":"Feinberg","year":"1985","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071964","article-title":"Biological aspects of sodium-23 imaging","volume":"40","author":"Maudsley","year":"1984","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/0730-725X(85)90402-3","article-title":"In vivo sodium-23 magnetic resonance surface coil imaging: Observing experimental cerebral ischemia in the rat","volume":"3","author":"Moseley","year":"1985","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.1910030213","article-title":"A method for in vivo MR imaging of the short T2 component of sodium-23","volume":"3","author":"Ra","year":"1986","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.167.2.3357970","article-title":"Sodium imaging of human body organs and extremities in vivo","volume":"167","author":"Granot","year":"1988","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.11.056","article-title":"Quantitative sodium MR imaging: A review of its evolving role in medicine","volume":"168","author":"Thulborn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.27147","article-title":"23Na -MRI as a Noninvasive Biomarker for Cancer Diagnosis and Prognosis","volume":"53","author":"Poku","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1007\/s12975-012-0168-7","article-title":"Sodium MRI and the assessment of irreversible tissue damage during hyper-acute stroke","volume":"3","author":"Boada","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transl. Stroke Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.102752","article-title":"Diffusely appearing white matter in multiple sclerosis: Insights from sodium (23Na) MRI","volume":"49","author":"Weber","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.21873\/invivo.12275","article-title":"Evaluation of Sodium (23Na) MR-imaging as a Biomarker and Predictor for Neurodegenerative Changes in Patients With Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"35","author":"Mohamed","year":"2021","journal-title":"In Vivo"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"222","article-title":"Regulation of intracellular Na+ in health and disease: Pathophysiological mechanisms and implications for treatment","volume":"2013","author":"Coppini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Cardiol. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21648","article-title":"Sodium imaging intensity increases with time after human ischemic stroke","volume":"66","author":"Hussain","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.20165","article-title":"Time course of 23Na signal intensity after myocardial infarction in humans","volume":"52","author":"Sandstede","year":"2004","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2481071027","article-title":"Tissue sodium concentration in myocardial infarction in humans: A quantitative 23Na MR imaging study","volume":"248","author":"Ouwerkerk","year":"2008","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.1103","article-title":"Detection of myocardial viability based on measurement of sodium content: A (23)Na-NMR study","volume":"45","author":"Horn","year":"2001","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinimag.2018.07.010","article-title":"Reliability and agreement of sodium (23Na) MRI in calf muscle and skin of healthy subjects from the US","volume":"52","author":"Dyke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nic.2009.09.001","article-title":"Quantitative Sodium MR Imaging and Sodium Bioscales for the Management of Brain Tumors","volume":"19","author":"Thulborn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.27326","article-title":"Frontiers of Sodium MRI Revisited: From Cartilage to Brain Imaging","volume":"54","author":"Zaric","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12823","article-title":"MRI Detection of Changes in Tissue Sodium Concentration in Brain Metastases after Stereotactic Radiosurgery: A Feasibility Study","volume":"31","author":"Mohamed","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mispelter, J., Lupu, M., and Briguet, A. (2006). Nmr Probeheads for Biophysical and Biomedical Experiments: Theoretical Principles and Practical Guidelines, Imperial College Press.","DOI":"10.1142\/p438"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s00723-010-0126-z","article-title":"Numerical Calculation of Peak-to-Average Specific Absorption Rate on Different Human Thorax Models for Magnetic Resonance Safety Considerations","volume":"38","author":"Hartwig","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Magn. Reson."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Jin, J. (1999). Electromagnetic Analysis and Design, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.3265","article-title":"Sodium MRI in human heart: A review","volume":"29","author":"Bottomley","year":"2015","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.24168","article-title":"Biomedical applications of sodium MRI in vivo","volume":"38","author":"Madelin","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.03.025","article-title":"Partial volume correction for in vivo 23Na -MRI data of the human brain","volume":"112","author":"Niesporek","year":"2015","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1007\/s00723-015-0720-1","article-title":"Design and simulation of a dual-tuned 1H\/23Na birdcage coil for MRS studies in human calf","volume":"46","author":"Giovannetti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Magn. Reson."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.26705","article-title":"Measuring Tissue Sodium Concentration: Cross-Vendor Repeatability and Reproducibility of 23Na -MRI Across Two Sites","volume":"50","author":"Riemer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2762","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1712295","article-title":"Theory of saturation and double resonance effects in ESR spectra: RF coherence and line shapes","volume":"47","author":"Freed","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/s00723-012-0323-z","article-title":"Coil sensitivity estimation with perturbing sphere method: Application to 13C birdcages","volume":"42","author":"Giovannetti","year":"2012","journal-title":"App. Magn. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1144020","article-title":"Quick measurement of NMR-coil sensitivity with a dual-loop probe","volume":"64","author":"Darrasse","year":"1993","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1002\/1099-0534(2000)12:4<173::AID-CMR1>3.0.CO;2-Q","article-title":"The principle of reciprocity in signal strength calculations\u2014A mathematical guide","volume":"12","author":"Hoult","year":"2000","journal-title":"Concepts Magn. Reson."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1002\/cmr.b.20121","article-title":"An accurate simulator for magnetic resonance coil sensitivity estimation","volume":"33","author":"Giovannetti","year":"2008","journal-title":"Concepts Magn. Reson. Part B Magn. Reson. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mri.2011.01.004","article-title":"B1+\/actual flip angle and reception sensitivity mapping methods: Simulation and comparison","volume":"29","author":"Hartwig","year":"2011","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.1657","article-title":"Transmit gain calibration for non proton MR using the Bloch\u2013Siegert shift","volume":"24","author":"Schulte","year":"2011","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerhalter, T., Gast, L.V., Marty, B., Uder, M., Carlier, P.G., and Nagel, A.M. (2020). Assessing the variability of 23Na MRI in skeletal muscle tissue: Reproducibility and repeatability of tissue sodium concentration measurements in the lower leg at 3 T. NMR Biomed., 33.","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.4279"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mri.2019.01.015","article-title":"Tissue sodium concentration and sodium T1 mapping of the human brain at 3 T using a Variable Flip Angle method","volume":"58","author":"Costea","year":"2019","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2005.848376","article-title":"Rapid gridding reconstruction with a minimal oversampling ratio","volume":"24","author":"Beatty","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.01.015","article-title":"User-guided 3D active contour segmentation of anatomical structures: Significantly improved efficiency and reliability","volume":"31","author":"Yushkevich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.23307","article-title":"Reproducibility and Repeatability of Quantitative Sodium MRI In Vivo in Articular Cartilage at 3T and 7T","volume":"68","author":"Madelina","year":"2012","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mri.2020.12.018","article-title":"Quantitative MRI: Defining repeatability, reproducibility and accuracy for prostate cancer imaging biomarker development","volume":"77","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1177\/0962280214537344","article-title":"Quantitative imaging biomarkers: A review of statistical methods for technical performance assessment","volume":"24","author":"Raunig","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stat. Methods Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyer, M.M., Haneder, S., Konstandin, S., Budjan, J., Morelli, J.N., Schad, L.R., Kerl, H.U., Schoenberg, S.O., and Kabbasch, C. (2019). Repeatability and reproducibility of cerebral 23Na imaging in healthy subjects. BMC Med. Imaging, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12880-019-0324-6"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.25096","article-title":"High-resolution quantitative sodium imaging at 9.4 Tesla","volume":"73","author":"Mirkes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.216.2.r00jl46559","article-title":"Human skeletal muscle: Sodium MR imaging and quantification-potential applications in exercise and disease","volume":"216","author":"Constantinides","year":"2000","journal-title":"Radiology"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/9\/2716\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:33:26Z","timestamp":1760106806000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/9\/2716"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s24092716"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24092716","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,24]]}}}