{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T19:08:59Z","timestamp":1782932939905,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]],"date-time":"2024-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714348800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021YFC2802203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFC2802203"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022110"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022110"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association of CAS","award":["2021YFC2802203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFC2802203"]}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association of CAS","award":["2022110"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022110"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The temperature and strain fields monitoring during the preparation process of buoyancy materials, as well as the health status after molding, are important for mastering the mechanical properties of buoyancy materials and ensuring the safety of operators and equipment. This paper proposes a short and high-density femtosecond fiber Bragg grating (fs-FBG) array based on different temperature coefficients fibers. By optimizing the parameters of femtosecond laser point-by-point writing technology, high-performance fs-FBG arrays with millimeter level gating length and millimeter level spatial resolution were prepared on two types of fibers. These were successfully embedded in buoyancy materials to achieve in-situ online monitoring of the curing process and after molding. The experimental results show that the fs-FBG array sensor has good anti-chirp performance and achieves online monitoring of millimeter-level spatial resolution. Intelligent buoyancy materials can provide real-time feedback on the health status of equipment in harsh underwater environments. The system can achieve temperature monitoring with an accuracy of 0.56 \u00b0C and deformation monitoring with sub-millimeter accuracy; the error is in the order of micrometers, which is of great significance in the field of deep-sea exploration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24092824","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]],"date-time":"2024-04-29T08:49:24Z","timestamp":1714380564000},"page":"2824","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Strain and Temperature Sensing Based on Different Temperature Coefficients fs-FBG Arrays for Intelligent Buoyancy Materials"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6993-420X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meng","family":"Tian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0569-4021","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minggan","family":"Lou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenzhu","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaiqi","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4869-6564","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wentao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronic Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3396","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-021-06806-0","article-title":"Effect of carbon fiber reinforcement on the compressive and thermal properties of hollow glass microspheres\/epoxy syntactic foam","volume":"57","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"737","article-title":"Curing Behavior of Epoxy Resin Packaging Material Based on FBG Online Monitoring Technique","volume":"32","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cailiao Yanjiu Xuebao\/Chin. J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2017.07.014","article-title":"Numerical analysis and fiber Bragg grating monitoring of thermocuring processes of carbon fiber\/epoxy laminates","volume":"62","author":"Qinglin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1298","article-title":"Application of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors in Monitoring Curing Process of Carbon Fiber Composite","volume":"37","author":"Jia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Zhongguo Jiguang\/Chin. J. Lasers"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/11\/2\/308","article-title":"Real-time cure monitoring of smart composite materials using extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometer and fiber Bragg grating sensors","volume":"11","author":"Leng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1726","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2014.2311441","article-title":"Experimental Study and Analysis of a Polymer Fiber Bragg Grating Embedded in a Composite Material","volume":"32","author":"Rajan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Yan, K., Lv, B., Zhao, Z., Du, Y., Zhu, S., Cui, T., Luo, X., and Zhang, L. (2021, January 24\u201326). Cascaded Bragg-grating-based real-time monitoring of buoyancy material curing. Proceedings of the First Optics Frontier Conference, Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2599783"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miao, S., Zhang, W., Huang, W., Li, F., and Song, Y. (2019, January 20\u201323). Monitoring of buoyancy material curing based on FBG sensors. Proceedings of the IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Auckland, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2019.8827100"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miao, S., Zhang, W., Huang, W., Li, F., Song, Y., and Li, Z. (2018, January 16\u201319). Buoyancy material curing monitoring based on optical fiber Bragg grating sensors. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Optical Communications and Networks (ICOCN2018), Zhuhai, China.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2520940"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-835X(02)00038-6","article-title":"Effect of thermal residual stress on the reflection spectrum from fiber Bragg grating sensors embedded in CFRP laminates","volume":"33","author":"Okabe","year":"2002","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, R., He, J., Xu, X., Wu, J., Wang, Y., and Wang, Y. (2022). High-Quality Fiber Bragg Gratings Inscribed by Femtosecond Laser Point-by-Point Technology. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13111808"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2020.102186","article-title":"Temperature-sensing characteristics of polarization-maintaining fiber Bragg grating inscribed directly by 800-nm femtosecond laser pulses","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2166","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2021.3131499","article-title":"High-Spatial-Resolution High-Temperature Sensor Based on Ultra-Short Fiber Bragg Gratings with Dual-Wavelength Differential Detection","volume":"40","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6173","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2908728","article-title":"Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors for Real Time Monitoring of Early Age Curing and Shrinkage of Different Metakaolin-Based Inorganic Binders","volume":"19","author":"Palumbo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11710","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3167950","article-title":"Optical Fiber Sensor with Double Tubes for Accurate Strain and Temperature Measurement Under High Temperature up to 1000 \u00b0C","volume":"22","author":"Tian","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1364\/JOT.87.000501","article-title":"Polyimide-coated fiber Bragg grating sensor for monitoring of the composite materials curing process","volume":"87","author":"Zhan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Opt. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"5","article-title":"An optical fiber multi-parameter sensor for temperature and strain real-time monitoring in different structures","volume":"22","author":"Zhan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Optelectron. Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2021.114087","article-title":"A simultaneous dual-parameter optical fibre single sensor embedded in a glass fibre\/epoxy composite","volume":"270","author":"Fazzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1364\/JOT.88.000100","article-title":"All-fiber temperature and refractive index sensor based on a cascaded tilted Bragg grating and a Bragg grating","volume":"88","author":"Fang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Opt. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1515\/joc-2014-0028","article-title":"Multi-parameter Simultaneously Sensing Based on an Optimized Concatenated FBG with LPG","volume":"36","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1002\/mop.30479","article-title":"Simultaneously two-parameter measurement using tilted fiber grating and long period fiber grating","volume":"59","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2014.12.066","article-title":"Strain and temperature discrimination using a fiber Bragg grating and multimode interference effects","volume":"343","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5660","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2906341","article-title":"Compact Dual Fiber Bragg Gratings for Simultaneous Strain and High-Temperature Measurement","volume":"19","author":"Su","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30946","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.030946","article-title":"Fiber ring laser based on MMF-PMFBG-MMF filter for three parameters sensing","volume":"25","author":"Yin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4697","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2019.2917389","article-title":"Low-Loss Random Fiber Gratings Made with an fs-IR Laser for Distributed Fiber Sensing","volume":"37","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1109\/50.618322","article-title":"Fiber grating spectra","volume":"15","author":"Erdogan","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5121","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.44.005121","article-title":"Low short-wavelength loss fiber Bragg gratings inscribed in a small-core fiber by femtosecond laser point-by-point technology","volume":"44","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halstuch, A., and Ishaaya, A.A. (2023). Femtosecond Inscription of a Fiber Bragg Grating Spectral Array in the Same Spatial Location. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23084064"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.450047","article-title":"Femtosecond laser point-by-point Bragg grating inscription in BDK-doped step-index PMMA optical fibers","volume":"47","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoon, H.J., Costantini, D.M., Michaud, V., Limberger, H.G., M\u00e5nson, J.A., Salath\u00e9, R.P., Kim, C.G., and Hong, C.S. (2005, January 7\u201310). In-situ simultaneous strain and temperature measurement of adaptive composite materials using a fiber Bragg grating based sensor. Proceedings of the Smart Structures and Materials 2005 Conference, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.599075"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2014.2385875","article-title":"Intrinsic High-Sensitivity Sensors Based on Etched Single-Mode Polymer Optical Fibers","volume":"27","author":"Bhowmik","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2453","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2519531","article-title":"High Intrinsic Sensitivity Etched Polymer Fiber Bragg Grating Pair for Simultaneous Strain and Temperature Measurements","volume":"16","author":"Bhowmik","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1134\/S1811238208010050","article-title":"Definition of the concept of polymer gel","volume":"50","author":"Rogovina","year":"2008","journal-title":"Polym. Sci. Ser. C"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2020.106066","article-title":"Three-dimensional spatial distributions of agglomerated particles on and near the burning surface of aluminized solid propellant using morphological digital in-line holography","volume":"106","author":"Jin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aerosp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2664","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.3c00521","article-title":"In Situ Monitoring of Curing Reaction in Solid Composite Propellant with Fiber-Optic Sensors","volume":"8","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8132","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.45.008132","article-title":"Method for enhancing temperature sensitivity of fiber Bragg gratings based on bimetallic sheets","volume":"45","author":"Xue","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2018.11.013","article-title":"Strain transfer analysis of fiber Bragg grating sensor assembled composite structures subjected to thermal loading","volume":"162","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s10909-023-02980-4","article-title":"Optimized Cryogenic FBG Sensitivity Coefficient Calibration for High-Precision Thermal Expansion Measurements","volume":"213","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Low Temp. Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.3807\/JOSK.2011.15.4.329","article-title":"A PDMS-Coated Optical Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor for Enhancing Temperature Sensitivity","volume":"15","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Korea"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1007\/s12206-013-1126-3","article-title":"Non-contact measurement of the coefficient of thermal expansion of Al 6061-T6 with fiber Bragg grating sensors","volume":"28","author":"Hayat","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mech. Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/9\/2824\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:35:40Z","timestamp":1760106940000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/9\/2824"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s24092824"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24092824","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]}}}