{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T03:18:40Z","timestamp":1775445520500,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]],"date-time":"2024-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714348800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MEraNet Project","award":["121N564"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["121N564"]}]},{"name":"MEraNet Project","award":["8253"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["8253"]}]},{"name":"T\u00dcB\u0130TAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) Multiple Cooperation Support Programs 1071","award":["121N564"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["121N564"]}]},{"name":"T\u00dcB\u0130TAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) Multiple Cooperation Support Programs 1071","award":["8253"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["8253"]}]},{"name":"Research Foundation of the Research Council of Lithuania","award":["121N564"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["121N564"]}]},{"name":"Research Foundation of the Research Council of Lithuania","award":["8253"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["8253"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ice detection poses significant challenges in sectors such as renewable energy and aviation due to its adverse effects on aircraft performance and wind energy production. Ice buildup alters the surface characteristics of aircraft wings or wind turbine blades, inducing airflow separation and diminishing the aerodynamic properties of these structures. While various approaches have been proposed to address icing effects, including chemical solutions, pneumatic systems, and heating systems, these solutions are often costly and limited in scope. To enhance the cost-effectiveness of ice protection systems, reliable information about current icing conditions, particularly in the early stages, is crucial. Ultrasonic guided waves offer a promising solution for ice detection, enabling integration into critical structures and providing coverage over larger areas. However, existing techniques primarily focus on detecting thick ice layers, leaving a gap in early-stage detection. This paper proposes an approach based on high-order symmetric modes to detect thin ice formation with thicknesses up to a few hundred microns. The method involves measuring the group velocity of the S1 mode at different temperatures and correlating velocity changes with ice layer formation. Experimental verification of the proposed approach was conducted using a novel group velocity dispersion curve reconstruction method, allowing for the tracking of propagating modes in the structure. Copper samples without and with special superhydrophobic multiscale coatings designed to prevent ice formation were employed for the experiments. The results demonstrated successful detection of ice formation and enabled differentiation between the coated and uncoated cases. Therefore, the proposed approach can be effectively used for early-stage monitoring of ice growth and evaluating the performance of anti-icing coatings, offering promising advancements in ice detection and prevention for critical applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24092850","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,30]],"date-time":"2024-04-30T04:01:52Z","timestamp":1714449712000},"page":"2850","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Early-Stage Ice Detection Utilizing High-Order Ultrasonic Guided Waves"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Regina","family":"Rekuvien\u0117","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Prof. K. Barsauskas Ultrasound Research Institute, Kaunas University of Technology, K. Barsausko St. 59, LT-5142 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9960-7619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vykintas","family":"Samaitis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Prof. K. Barsauskas Ultrasound Research Institute, Kaunas University of Technology, K. Barsausko St. 59, LT-5142 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3977-7549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Audrius","family":"Jankauskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Prof. K. Barsauskas Ultrasound Research Institute, Kaunas University of Technology, K. Barsausko St. 59, LT-5142 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Abdolali K.","family":"Sadaghiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sabanci University Nanotechnology and Application Centre (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences (FENS), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shaghayegh","family":"Saeidiharzand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sabanci University Nanotechnology and Application Centre (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences (FENS), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6283-6717","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Ko\u015far","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sabanci University Nanotechnology and Application Centre (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences (FENS), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey"},{"name":"Center of Excellence for Functional Surfaces and Interfaces for Nano-Diagnostics (EFSUN), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Green, S. (2006, January 9\u201312). A Study of U.S. Inflight Icing Accidents and Incidents, 1978 to 2002. Proceedings of the 44th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2006-82"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Aviation Safety Network (2017). West Wind Aviation ATR 42-300 Report, Flight Safety Foundation."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Aviation Safety Network (2019). Bek Air Flight 2100 Report, Flight Safety Foundation."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.2514\/1.C034828","article-title":"Performance-Based Ice Detection Methodology","volume":"57","author":"Deiler","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Aircr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2022.109025","article-title":"Ultrasonic Inspection for Ice Accretion Assessment: Effects on Direct Wave Propagation in Composite Media","volume":"173","author":"Maio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2017.12.028","article-title":"Aircraft Icing: An Ongoing Threat to Aviation Safety","volume":"75","author":"Cao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aerosp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.3390\/encyclopedia2010005","article-title":"Aircraft Icing Severity Evaluation","volume":"2","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Encyclopedia"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2010.01.005","article-title":"Anti-Icing and De-Icing Techniques for Wind Turbines: Critical Review","volume":"65","author":"Parent","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2023.10.733","article-title":"UAV Icing: A Survey of Recent Developments in Ice Detection Methods","volume":"56","author":"Hann","year":"2023","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamazaki, M., Jemcov, A., and Sakaue, H. (2021). A Review on the Current Status of Icing Physics and Mitigation in Aviation. Aerospace, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace8070188"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shu, L., Yu, Z., Hu, Q., and Jiang, X. (2023). Numerical and Experimental Investigations of Deicing Performance for the Pneumatic Impulse Deicing Method. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse11071371"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2023.121723","article-title":"Integrated Composite Electrothermal De-Icing System Based on Ultra-Thin Flexible Heating Film","volume":"236","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paerosci.2012.11.001","article-title":"A Review of in-Flight Detection and Identification of Aircraft Icing and Reconfigurable Control","volume":"60","author":"Caliskan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prog. Aerosp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schlegl, T., Moser, M., Loss, T., and Unger, T. (2019, January 17\u201321). A Smart Icing Detection System for any Location on the Outer Aircraft Surface. Proceedings of the Conference: International Conference on Icing of Aircraft, Engines, and Structures, Minneapolis, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.4271\/2019-01-1931"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11006","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3169477","article-title":"Design of Capacitance and Impedance Dual-Parameters Planar Electrode Sensor for Thin Ice Detection of Aircraft Wings","volume":"22","author":"Zheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800589","DOI":"10.1002\/adem.201800589","article-title":"Studies on Sheet-Metal Compounds with Piezoceramic Modules for Icing Detection and De-Icing","volume":"20","author":"Nestler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035201","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/24\/3\/035201","article-title":"Ice Type Detection using an Oblique End-Face Fibre-Optic Technique","volume":"24","author":"Zou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1108\/AEAT-11-2012-0219","article-title":"Detection and Rate of Growth of Ice on Aerodynamic Surfaces using its Optical Characteristics","volume":"85","author":"Ikiades","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Chen, W., Bond, L.J., and Hu, H. (2014, January 3\u20137). A Feasibility Study to Identify Ice Types by Measuring Attenuation of Ultrasonic Waves for Aircraft Icing Detection. Proceedings of the ASME 2014 4th Joint US-European Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting collocated with the ASME 2014 12th International Conference on Nanochannels, Microchannels, and Minichannels, Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuleki, D., Sun, Z., Wu, J., and Miller, G. (2017, January 5\u20139). Development of a Non-Intrusive Ultrasound Ice Accretion Sensor to Detect and Quantify Ice Accretion Severity. Proceedings of the 9th AIAA Atmospheric and Space Environments Conference, Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2017-4247"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012060","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/1226\/1\/012060","article-title":"Addressing Safety Concerns in Hybrid Electric Aircrafts: In-Flight Icing Detection, Moisture Detection in Fuselage and Electrical Wiring and Interconnect System (EWIS)","volume":"1226","author":"Sohail","year":"2022","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2009.1042","article-title":"Ice Detection and Classification on an Aircraft Wing with Ultrasonic Shear Horizontal Guided Waves","volume":"56","author":"Gao","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1007\/s13272-018-0289-0","article-title":"Ice Detection by Ultrasonic Guided Waves","volume":"9","author":"Mendig","year":"2018","journal-title":"CEAS Aeronaut. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moll, J., Simon, J., and Memmolo, V. (2019, January 19\u201321). Surface Ice Detection on Composite Plates with Ultrasonic Guided Waves. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 5th International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace (MetroAeroSpace), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAeroSpace.2019.8869611"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1138134","article-title":"Investigation on Guided Waves Propagation Across Ice Layers","volume":"11381","author":"Memmolo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Y., Duongthipthewa, A., Chen, Q., Guo, H., Liu, M., Zhang, J., and Zhou, L. (2024). Quantitative Monitoring of Icing on CFRP Laminate with Guided Wave Combining Forward Modeling and Inverse Characterization. Struct. Health Monit.","DOI":"10.1177\/14759217231222544"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300021","DOI":"10.1002\/admi.202300021","article-title":"Development and Implementation of Microbial Antifreeze Protein Based Coating for Anti-Icing","volume":"10","author":"Saeidiharzand","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202510","DOI":"10.1002\/admi.202202510","article-title":"Multiscale Superhydrophobic Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework Coating for Static and Dynamic Anti-Icing Purposes","volume":"10","author":"Saeidiharzand","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yule, L., Zaghari, B., Harris, N., and Hill, M. (2021). Modelling and Validation of a Guided Acoustic Wave Temperature Monitoring System. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217390"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045006","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-2048\/26\/4\/045006","article-title":"A Simple and Effective Approach for Thermo-Mechanical Modelling of Composite Superconducting Wires","volume":"26","author":"Boso","year":"2013","journal-title":"Supercond. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2913","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2000.0690","article-title":"Models for the Growth of Rime, Glaze, Icicles and Wet Snow on Structures","volume":"358","author":"Poots","year":"2000","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London.Ser. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tumsys, O. (2022). Experimental Method for Simultaneous Determination of the Lamb Wave A0 Modes Group and Phase Velocities. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15092976"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/9\/2850\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:36:31Z","timestamp":1760106991000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/9\/2850"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s24092850"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24092850","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]}}}