{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T01:53:10Z","timestamp":1770688390313,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715385600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/0536\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/0536\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDP\/0536\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/0536\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The main purpose of the paper is to show how a magnetoresistive (MR) element can work as a current sensor instead of using a Wheatstone bridge composed by four MR elements, defining the concept of a magnetoresistive shunt (MR-shunt). This concept is reached by considering that once the MR element is biased at a constant current, the voltage drop between its terminals offers information, by the MR effect, of the current to be measured, as happens in a conventional shunt resistor. However, an MR-shunt has the advantage of being a non-dissipative shunt since the current of interest does not circulate through the material, preventing its self-heating. Moreover, it provides galvanic isolation. First, we propose an electronic circuitry enabling the utilization of the available MR sensors integrated into a Wheatstone bridge as sensing elements (MR-shunt). This circuitry allows independent characterization of each of the four elements of the bridge. An independently implemented MR element is also analyzed. Secondly, we propose an electronic conditioning circuit for the MR-shunt, which allows both the bridge-integrated element and the single element to function as current sensors in a similar way to the sensing bridge. Third, the thermal variation in the sensitivity of the MR-shunt, and its temperature coefficient, are obtained. An electronic interface is proposed and analyzed for thermal drift compensation of the MR-shunt current sensitivity. With this hardware compensation, temperature coefficients are experimentally reduced from 0.348%\/\u00b0C without compensation to \u22120.008%\/\u00b0C with compensation for an element integrated in a sensor bridge and from 0.474%\/\u00b0C to \u22120.0007%\/\u00b0C for the single element.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24103047","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]],"date-time":"2024-05-13T11:18:17Z","timestamp":1715599097000},"page":"3047","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Characterization of Magnetoresistive Shunts and Its Sensitivity Temperature Compensation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Diego","family":"Ram\u00edrez-Mu\u00f1oz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Valencia, Avda. de la Universitat, s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9215-5362","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Garc\u00eda-Gil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Valencia, Avda. de la Universitat, s\/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6913-6529","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Cardoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC Microsistemas e Nanotecnologias (INESC-MN) and Instituto Superior Tecnico, Universidade de Lisboa, R. Alves Redol 9, 1000-029 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paulo","family":"Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC Microsistemas e Nanotecnologias (INESC-MN) and Instituto Superior Tecnico, Universidade de Lisboa, R. Alves Redol 9, 1000-029 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4108","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2009.2022081","article-title":"Current Sensing for Automotive Electronics\u2014A Survey","volume":"58","author":"Patel","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"9003011","article-title":"Application of Tunnel Magnetoresistance for PCB Tracks Current Sensing in High-Frequency Power Converters","volume":"72","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2009.2013914","article-title":"Current Sensing Techniques: A Review","volume":"9","author":"Ziegler","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biglarbegian, M., Nibir, S.J., Jafarian, H., and Parkhideh, B. (2016, January 23\u201327). Development of Current Measurement Techniques for High Frequency Power Converters. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Telecommunications Energy Conference (INTELEC), Austin, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INTLEC.2016.7749133"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Ikeda, K., and Masuda, H. (2024, May 10). High-Precision, Wideband, Highly Stable Current Sensing Technology. Available online: https:\/\/www.hioki.com\/download\/31445."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1049\/esej:19930034","article-title":"Using Rogowski Coils for Transient Current Measurements","volume":"2","author":"Ward","year":"1993","journal-title":"Eng. Sci. Educ. J."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Emerald, P. (2024, May 10). Non-Intrusive Hall-Effect Current Sensing Techniques Provide Safe, Reliable Detection and Protection for Power Electronics. Available online: https:\/\/www.allegromicro.com\/-\/media\/files\/technical-documents\/product-information\/stp98-1-non-intrusive-hall-effect-current-sensing-techniques.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10137","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3119766","article-title":"Hall-Effect Current Sensors: Principles of Operation and Implementation Techniques","volume":"22","author":"Crescentini","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7704","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2725983","article-title":"An AMR-Based Three-Phase Current Sensor for Smart Grid Applications","volume":"17","author":"Bernieri","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"082001","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/24\/8\/082001","article-title":"Advanced Giant Magnetoresistance Technology for Measurement Applications","volume":"24","author":"Weiss","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"9503609","article-title":"Tunnel Magnetoresistance-Based Noncontact Current Sensing and Measurement Method","volume":"71","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Schuina Neves, C., Magalhaes, D.P., Hall Barbosa, C.R., and Oliveira, E.C. (2018). Journal of Physics: Conference Series, Institute of Physics Publishing."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4400705","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2019.2896379","article-title":"Reconfigurable Spintronics Wheatstone Bridge Sensors with Offset Voltage Compensation at Wafer Level","volume":"55","author":"Franco","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153903","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aeue.2021.153903","article-title":"On-Chip Implementation of Different Analog Linearization Schemes for Giant-Magnetoresistance Sensors with a Comparative Study","volume":"139","author":"Sen","year":"2021","journal-title":"AEU\u2014Int. J. Electron. Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15993","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3076276","article-title":"Normalization and Correction Factors for Magnetic Tunnel Junction Sensor Performances Comparison","volume":"21","author":"Monteblanco","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121828","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3315737","article-title":"Research on TMR Current Transducer With Temperature Compensation Based on Reference Magnetic Field","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1108\/SR-01-2019-0005","article-title":"Temperature Relevant Performance and Calibration of Spin-Valve Sensor","volume":"39","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2022.08.062","article-title":"Optimal Design and Implementation of Tunnelling Magnetoresistance Based Small Current Sensor with Temperature Compensation","volume":"8","author":"Lei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12687","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3268679","article-title":"Design, Development, and Performance Evaluation of GMR-Based Current Sensor for Industrial and Aerospace Applications","volume":"23","author":"Borole","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6864","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1558248","article-title":"High-Resolution Giant Magnetoresistance on-Chip Arrays for Magnetic Imaging","volume":"93","author":"Smith","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reig, C., Pardo, F., Boluda, J.A., Vegara, F., Cubells-Beltran, M.D., Sanchis, J., Abrunhosa, S., and Cardoso, S. (2021, January 9). Advanced Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) Sensors for Selective-Change Driven (SCD) Circuits. Proceedings of the 2021 13th Spanish Conference on Electron Devices, CDE 2021, Sevilla, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/CDE52135.2021.9455731"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2017.07.052","article-title":"Performance Comparison of a Single Element Piezoresistor with a Half-Active Wheatstone Bridge for Miniaturized Pressure Sensors","volume":"111","author":"Meena","year":"2017","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Xu, H., Li, Y., Song, Z., San, H., and Yu, Y. (2013, January 7\u201310). A Si-Glass Based Pressure Sensor with A Single Piezoresistive Element for Harsh Environment Applications. Proceedings of the 2013 8th IEEE International Conference on Nano\/Micro Engineered and Molecular Systems (NEMS), Suzhou, China."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prochaska, M., Rohrmann, K., Sandner, M., Meier, P., and Freund, F. (2018, January 25\u201328). A Readout Concept for AC-Driven XMR Sensors in Automotive Wheel Speed Applications. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 9th Latin American Symposium on Circuits & Systems (LASCAS), Puerto Vallarta, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1109\/LASCAS.2018.8399913"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2608","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2011.2158085","article-title":"Novel Application of Magnetoresistive Sensors for High-Voltage Transmission-Line Monitoring","volume":"47","author":"Sun","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15520","DOI":"10.3390\/s121115520","article-title":"A Current Sensor Based on the Giant Magnetoresistance Effect: Design and Potential Smart Grid Applications","volume":"12","author":"Ouyang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4400309","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2023.3300014","article-title":"Enhanced Direct-Current Bias Detection Method Based on AC-Modulated Tunneling Magnetoresistive Sensor for Transformer-Based Renewable Energy Systems","volume":"59","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Kitchin, C., and Counts, L. (2000). A Designer\u2019s Guide to Instrumentation Amplifiers, Analog Devices."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Franco, S. (2015). Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits, McGraw-Hill Education, Inc.. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Fraden, J. (2004). Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Swartz, C., Derrington, C., and Gragg, J. (2004). AN840\/D Temperature Compensation Methods for the Freescale X-Ducer Pressure Sensor Element, Freescale Semiconductor Inc.. Available online: https:\/\/www.nxp.com\/docs\/en\/application-note\/AN840.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraden, J. (2016). Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-19303-8"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22122","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3105546","article-title":"A Tutorial on Thermal Sensors in the 200th Anniversary of the Seebeck Effect","volume":"21","author":"Reverter","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37518","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2904970","article-title":"Nickel Based RTD Fabricated via Additive Screen Printing Process for Flexible Electronics","volume":"7","author":"Turkani","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Gopel, W., Hesse, J., and Zemel, J. (2008). Sensors: A Comprehensive Survey, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2024, March 22). Texas Instruments Temperature Sensing with Thermistors. Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/lit\/wp\/slay054a\/slay054a.pdf?ts=1711099551805&ref_url=https%253A%252F%252Fwww.google.com%252F#:~:text=Thermistors%20alter%20their%20resistance%20with,thermistors%20increase%20their%20resistance%20value."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez, J., Mor\u00f3n, M., Ramirez, D., Casans, S., and Navarro, E. (2011, January 10\u201312). An Electrical Current Smart Transducer Based on PSoC Platform and Integrated Spin-Valve Sensor with Embedded Thin Film Ruthenium Temperature Sensor. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMTC.2011.5944329"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2447","DOI":"10.3390\/s110302447","article-title":"A Non-Invasive Thermal Drift Compensation Technique Applied to a Spin-Valve Magnetoresistive Current Sensor","volume":"11","author":"Cardoso","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"6086752","article-title":"Ru-Based Thin Film Temperature Sensor for Space Environments: Microfabrication and Characterization under Total Ionizing Dose","volume":"2016","author":"Cardoso","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sens."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/10\/3047\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:44:08Z","timestamp":1760107448000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/10\/3047"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s24103047"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24103047","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]]}}}