{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T16:37:18Z","timestamp":1781195838564,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,22]],"date-time":"2024-05-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716336000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014440","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2021-127261OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2021-127261OB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) is currently a suitable gaze-independent paradigm for controlling visual brain\u2013computer interfaces (BCIs) based on event-related potentials (ERPs), especially for users with limited eye movement control. However, unlike gaze-dependent paradigms, gaze-independent ones have received less attention concerning the specific choice of visual stimuli that are used. In gaze-dependent BCIs, images of faces\u2014particularly those tinted red\u2014have been shown to be effective stimuli. This study aims to evaluate whether the colour of faces used as visual stimuli influences ERP-BCI performance under RSVP. Fifteen participants tested four conditions that varied only in the visual stimulus used: grey letters (GL), red famous faces with letters (RFF), green famous faces with letters (GFF), and blue famous faces with letters (BFF). The results indicated significant accuracy differences only between the GL and GFF conditions, unlike prior gaze-dependent studies. Additionally, GL achieved higher comfort ratings compared with other face-related conditions. This study highlights that the choice of stimulus type impacts both performance and user comfort, suggesting implications for future ERP-BCI designs for users requiring gaze-independent systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113315","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,22]],"date-time":"2024-05-22T10:00:11Z","timestamp":1716372011000},"page":"3315","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Evaluation of Different Types of Stimuli in an Event-Related Potential-Based Brain\u2013Computer Interface Speller under Rapid Serial Visual Presentation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8721-0585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Ron-Angevin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Tecnolog\u00eda Electr\u00f3nica, Instituto Universitario de Investigaci\u00f3n en Telecomunicaci\u00f3n de la Universidad de M\u00e1laga (TELMA), Universidad de M\u00e1laga, 29071 Malaga, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3421-976X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1lvaro","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Tecnolog\u00eda Electr\u00f3nica, Instituto Universitario de Investigaci\u00f3n en Telecomunicaci\u00f3n de la Universidad de M\u00e1laga (TELMA), Universidad de M\u00e1laga, 29071 Malaga, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Velasco-\u00c1lvarez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Tecnolog\u00eda Electr\u00f3nica, Instituto Universitario de Investigaci\u00f3n en Telecomunicaci\u00f3n de la Universidad de M\u00e1laga (TELMA), Universidad de M\u00e1laga, 29071 Malaga, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3166-9191","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V\u00e9ronique","family":"Lespinet-Najib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire IMS, CNRS UMR 5218, Cognitive Team, Bordeaux INP-ENSC, 33400 Bordeaux, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9844-4694","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean-Marc","family":"Andr\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire IMS, CNRS UMR 5218, Cognitive Team, Bordeaux INP-ENSC, 33400 Bordeaux, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonci, A., Fiori, S., Higashi, H., Tanaka, T., and Verdini, F. (2021). An introductory tutorial on brain\u2013computer interfaces and their applications. Electronics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10050560"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/07434618.2018.1556730","article-title":"New and emerging access technologies for adults with complex communication needs and severe motor impairments: State of the science","volume":"35","author":"Jakobs","year":"2019","journal-title":"AAC Augment. Altern. Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17562864231160872","DOI":"10.1177\/17562864231160873","article-title":"Locked-in syndrome revisited","volume":"16","author":"Schnetzer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1007\/s12551-023-01138-6","article-title":"Review on brain-computer interface technologies in healthcare","volume":"15","author":"Karikari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biophys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rezvani, S., Hosseini-Zahraei, S.H., Tootchi, A., Guger, C., Chaibakhsh, Y., Saberi, A., and Chaibakhsh, A. (2023). A review on the performance of brain-computer interface systems used for patients with locked-in and completely locked-in syndrome. Cogn. Neurodyn.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11571-023-09995-3"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320457","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1320457","article-title":"A comprehensive dataset for home appliance control using ERP-based BCIs with the application of inter-subject transfer learning","volume":"18","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216648","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1216648","article-title":"Non-invasive EEG-based BCI spellers from the beginning to today: A mini-review","volume":"17","author":"Maslova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13569","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13569","article-title":"30+ years of P300 brain\u2013computer interfaces","volume":"57","author":"Allison","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2012.12.050","article-title":"Gaze-independent BCI-spelling using rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP)","volume":"124","author":"Acqualagna","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00261","article-title":"P300 Speller Performance Predictor Based on RSVP Multi-feature","volume":"13","author":"Won","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zang, B., Lin, Y., Liu, Z., and Gao, X. (2021). A deep learning method for single-trial EEG classification in RSVP task based on spatiotemporal features of ERPs. J. Neural Eng., 18.","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ac1610"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3390\/signals5010002","article-title":"The Effect of Jittered Stimulus Onset Interval on Electrophysiological Markers of Attention in a Brain\u2013Computer Interface Rapid Serial Visual Presentation Paradigm","volume":"5","author":"Klee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signals"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56013","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/7\/5\/056013","article-title":"Does the \u201cP300\u201d speller depend on eye gaze?","volume":"7","author":"Brunner","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-10-82","article-title":"The cost of space independence in P300-BCI spellers","volume":"10","author":"Chennu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2017.2736600","article-title":"Motion-Based Rapid Serial Visual Presentation for Gaze-Independent Brain-Computer Interfaces","volume":"26","author":"Won","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2019.2953975","article-title":"Speed of rapid serial visual presentation of pictures, numbers and words affects event-related potential-based detection accuracy","volume":"28","author":"Lees","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2016.00005","article-title":"Exploring Combinations of Different Color and Facial Expression Stimuli for Gaze-Independent BCIs","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Comput. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(88)90149-6","article-title":"Talking off the top of your head: Toward a mental prosthesis utilizing event-related brain potentials","volume":"70","author":"Farwell","year":"1988","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056016","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/5\/056016","article-title":"Flashing characters with famous faces improves ERP-based brain-computer interface performance","volume":"8","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Liu, S., Li, J., and Bai, O. (2015). Use of a green familiar faces paradigm improves P300-speller brain-computer interface performance. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0130325"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00054","article-title":"Comparison of the ERP-Based BCI Performance Among Chromatic (RGB) Semitransparent Face Patterns","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-021-02340-y","article-title":"Different effects of using pictures as stimuli in a P300 brain-computer interface under rapid serial visual presentation or row-column paradigm","volume":"59","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2019.02.015","article-title":"UMA-BCI Speller: An Easily Configurable P300 Speller Tool for End Users","volume":"172","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Programs Biomed."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2004.827072","article-title":"BCI2000: A general-purpose brain-computer interface (BCI) system","volume":"51","author":"Schalk","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2020, September 02). User Reference:P300Classifier. Available online: https:\/\/www.bci2000.org\/mediawiki\/index.php\/User_Reference:P300Classifier."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2245","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-017-1671-5","article-title":"Performance improvement of ERP-based brain\u2013computer interface via varied geometric patterns","volume":"55","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00141","article-title":"A riemannian modification of artifact subspace reconstruction for EEG artifact handling","volume":"13","author":"Blum","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plechawska-W\u00f3jcik, M., Augustynowicz, P., Kaczorowska, M., Zabielska-Mendyk, E., and Zapa\u0142a, D. (2023). The Influence Assessment of Artifact Subspace Reconstruction on the EEG Signal Characteristics. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13031605"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1686","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.01686","article-title":"Welcome to the Tidyverse","volume":"4","author":"Wickham","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Open Source Softw."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"R Core Team R (2021). A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Core Team R."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009","article-title":"EEGLAB: An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis","volume":"134","author":"Delorme","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"169","article-title":"N2 and automatic versus controlled processes","volume":"38","author":"Picton","year":"1986","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rezeika, A., Benda, M., Stawicki, P., Gembler, F., Saboor, A., and Volosyak, I. (2018). Brain\u2013computer interface spellers: A review. Brain Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci8040057"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587702","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2020.587702","article-title":"Performance Analysis with Different Types of Visual Stimuli in a BCI-Based Speller Under an RSVP Paradigm","volume":"14","author":"Andre","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Comput. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591777","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.591777","article-title":"Impact of Stimulus Features on the Performance of a Gaze-Independent Brain-Computer Interface Based on Covert Spatial Attention Shifts","volume":"14","author":"Reichert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"026036","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ac60c8","article-title":"Improving the performance of a gaze independent P300-BCI by using the expectancy wave","volume":"19","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2014.03.005","article-title":"Comparing tactile and visual gaze-independent brain-computer interfaces in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and healthy users","volume":"125","author":"Severens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6549189","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/6549189","article-title":"Effects of Visual Attention on Tactile P300 BCI","volume":"2020","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-023-01289-3","article-title":"The challenge of controlling an auditory BCI in the case of severe motor disability","volume":"21","author":"Maby","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450027","DOI":"10.1142\/S0129065714500270","article-title":"An erp-based bci using an oddball paradigm with different faces and reduced errors in critical functions","volume":"24","author":"Jin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Neural Syst."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9972","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3050545","article-title":"The Effect of SOA on An Asynchronous ERP and VEP-Based BCI","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, R., Zhang, L., Meng, P., Meng, X., and Weng, M. (2022). The Neural Responses of Visual Complexity in the Oddball Paradigm: An ERP Study. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12040447"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Luck, S.J. (2014). An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108918","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2020.108918","article-title":"A comprehensive assessment of Brain Computer Interfaces: Recent trends and challenges","volume":"346","author":"Yadav","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860619","DOI":"10.3389\/fcomp.2022.860619","article-title":"Editorial: Brain-Computer Interfaces for Non-clinical (Home, Sports, Art, Entertainment, Education, Well-Being) Applications","volume":"4","author":"Nijholt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-012-0868-x","article-title":"Targeting an efficient target-to-target interval for P300 speller brain-computer interfaces","volume":"50","author":"Jin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"046023","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/12\/4\/046023","article-title":"Da Initial test of a T9-like P300-based speller by an ALS patient","volume":"12","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/1744-9081-6-28","article-title":"(C)overt attention and visual speller design in an ERP-based brain-computer interface","volume":"6","author":"Treder","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Funct."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1843269","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/1843269","article-title":"Towards an accessible use of a brain-computer interfaces-based home care system through a smartphone","volume":"2020","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K., Yu, Y., Liu, Y., Tang, J., Liang, X., Chu, X., and Zhou, Z. (2022). A novel brain-controlled wheelchair combined with computer vision and augmented reality. Biomed. Eng. Online, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12938-022-01020-8"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4129","DOI":"10.1111\/jocn.13945","article-title":"Supportive care needs of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis\/motor neuron disease and their caregivers: A scoping review","volume":"26","author":"Oh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-018-0399-z","article-title":"Evaluating the replicability of social science experiments in Nature and Science between 2010 and 2015","volume":"2","author":"Camerer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25028","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/2\/025028","article-title":"Workload measurement in a communication application operated through a P300-based brain\u2013computer interface","volume":"8","author":"Riccio","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2018.06.027","article-title":"Brain-computer interface for workload estimation: Assessment of mental efforts in learning processes","volume":"112","author":"Zammouri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2018.1455307","article-title":"The System Usability Scale: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"34","author":"Lewis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3315\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:46:35Z","timestamp":1760107595000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3315"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,22]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s24113315"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24113315","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,22]]}}}