{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T17:45:04Z","timestamp":1780595104440,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]],"date-time":"2024-05-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716508800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MIC\/SCOPE","award":["#JP215006001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#JP215006001"]}]},{"name":"MIC\/SCOPE","award":["19K04374"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19K04374"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["#JP215006001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#JP215006001"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["19K04374"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19K04374"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carrier sense allows end devices to improve the communication quality through autonomous decentralization by consuming power. In particular, energy detection-based carrier sense can improve communication quality compared with peak detection-based carrier sense. To improve the trade-off between communication quality and energy consumption in low-power wide-area networks (LPWANs), this study proposes a self-tuning method for the signal detection level of an energy detection-based carrier sense, that is, the carrier sense level in sub-GHz band LPWANs. In the proposed method, the carrier sense level of each end device is determined based on the reception success probability of the acknowledgment packet, such that they become low carrier sense levels for an end device with low probability and high carrier sense levels for an end device with high probability. The proposed method enables autonomous decentralized derivation of the carrier sense level using only existing protocols. Numerical examples show that the proposed method can improve the performance of end devices with a high path loss to a gateway.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113368","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]],"date-time":"2024-05-24T05:36:06Z","timestamp":1716528966000},"page":"3368","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Self-Tuning of Signal Detection Level for Energy Detection-Based Carrier Sense in Low-Power Wide-Area Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2398-9977","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shusuke","family":"Narieda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, Tsu 514-8507, Mie, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7886-5560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takeo","family":"Fujii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Wireless and Communication Research Center (AWCC), The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu 182-8585, Tokyo, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/MIE.2016.2618724","article-title":"Massive Internet of Things for Industrial Applications: Addressing Wireless IoT Connectivity Challenges and Ecosystem Fragmentation","volume":"11","author":"Shahid","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Luca, L., Filippo, B., Gaetano, P., and Lo, B.L. (2018, January 21\u201323). Industrial LoRa: A Novel Medium Access Strategy for LoRa in Industry 4.0 Applications. Proceedings of the IECON 2018\u201444th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7243","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2020.2967123","article-title":"Optimal Configuration of LoRa Networks in Smart Cities","volume":"16","author":"Premsankar","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2017.2652320","article-title":"Low Power Wide Area Networks: An Overview","volume":"19","author":"Raza","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOM.1975.1092768","article-title":"Packet Switching in Radio Channels: Part I - Carrier Sense Multiple-Access Modes and Their Throughput-Delay Characteristics","volume":"23","author":"Kleinrock","year":"1975","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2012.2233495","article-title":"Throughput-Optimal CSMA With Imperfect Carrier Sensing","volume":"21","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2016). IEEE Standard for Information Technology\u2014Telecommunications and Information Exchange between Systems Local and Metropolitan Area Networks\u2014Specific Requirements\u2014Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications (Standard No. IEEE Std 802.11-2016 (Revision of IEEE Std 802.11-2012))."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Kay, S.M. (1998). Fundamentals of Statistical Signal Processing: Detection Theory, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1967.5573","article-title":"Energy Detection of Unknown Deterministic Signals","volume":"55","author":"Urkowitz","year":"1967","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/79.81007","article-title":"Exploitation of Spectral Redundancy in Cyclostationary Signals","volume":"8","author":"Gardner","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Mag."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2018). 920MHz-Band Telemeter, Telecontrol and Data Transmission Radio Equipment v. 1.2 (Standard No. ARIB STD-T108). (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79105","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3299219","article-title":"Energy Detection Based Carrier Sense in LPWAN","volume":"11","author":"Narieda","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2627","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3320861","article-title":"NOMA-Assisted Secure Offloading for Vehicular Edge Computing Networks With Asynchronous Deep Reinforcement Learning","volume":"25","author":"Ju","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5408","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2023.3292486","article-title":"Energy Efficient Cooperative Communications in Aggregated VLC\/RF Networks With NOMA","volume":"71","author":"Rallis","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zorbas, D., and O\u2019Flynn, B. (2019, January 10\u201312). Autonomous Collision-Free Scheduling for LoRa-Based Industrial Internet of Things. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 20th International Symposium on \u201cA World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks\u201d (WoWMoM), Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WoWMoM.2019.8792975"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2020.01.056","article-title":"TS-LoRa: Time-Slotted LoRaWAN for the Industrial Internet of Things","volume":"153","author":"Zorbas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alahmadi, H., Bouabdallah, F., Al-Dubai, A., and Ghaleb, B. (2023, January 19\u201323). A Novel Autonomous Time-Slotted LoRa MAC Protocol with Adaptive Frame Sizes. Proceedings of the 2023 International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing (IWCMC), Marrakesh, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWCMC58020.2023.10182638"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2022.04.003","article-title":"A Novel Time-Slotted LoRa MAC Protocol for Scalable IoT Networks","volume":"134","author":"Alahmadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2022, March 17). Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7171","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2982745","article-title":"Analysis and Enhancement of the LoRaWAN Adaptive Data Rate Scheme","volume":"7","author":"Finnegan","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2670","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3020189","article-title":"A Novel Collision-Aware Adaptive Data Rate Algorithm for LoRaWAN Networks","volume":"8","author":"Marini","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2020.3038638","article-title":"Capture Aware Sequential Waterfilling for LoRaWAN Adaptive Data Rate","volume":"20","author":"Garlisi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samejima, K., Okumura, R., Mizutani, K., and Harada, H. (2020, January 10\u201313). Evaluation of CSL-based Low Power MAC Protocol for Wireless Smart Metering Networks. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 17th Annual Consumer Communications and Networking Conference (CCNC), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCNC46108.2020.9045549"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2022, March 17). Available online: https:\/\/www.semtech.com\/products\/wireless-rf\/lora-transceivers\/sx1276."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3359","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2008.060057","article-title":"Performance Analysis of Slotted Carrier Sense IEEE 802.15.4 Medium Access Layer","volume":"7","author":"Pollin","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Proakis, J.G. (2001). Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTSP.2007.914879","article-title":"SNR Walls for Signal Detection","volume":"2","author":"Tandra","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3410","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2011.102011.100708","article-title":"Effects of Noise Power Estimation on Energy Detection for Cognitive Radio Applications","volume":"59","author":"Mariani","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Narieda, S., and Fujii, T. (2024, January 6\u20139). On Execution at End Devices for Energy Detection Based Carrier Sense in LPWAN. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 21th Annual Consumer Communications and Networking Conference (CCNC), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCNC51664.2024.10454869"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Tsuchiya, H., Mikami, M., and Kurono, M. (2012). A Study of the Propagation Channel Modeling for Smart Meter Communications\u2014Measurement and Evaluation of the Propagation Path Loss in a Residential, an Urban and a Suburban Area, Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI)."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3368\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:47:56Z","timestamp":1760107676000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3368"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s24113368"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24113368","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]]}}}