{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T05:02:33Z","timestamp":1771477353150,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,30]],"date-time":"2024-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717027200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science Centre, Poland","award":["2022\/06\/X\/ST6\/00431"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022\/06\/X\/ST6\/00431"]}]},{"name":"National Science Centre, Poland","award":["WZ\/WM\u2013IIB\/2\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WZ\/WM\u2013IIB\/2\/2024"]}]},{"name":"Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education","award":["2022\/06\/X\/ST6\/00431"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022\/06\/X\/ST6\/00431"]}]},{"name":"Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education","award":["WZ\/WM\u2013IIB\/2\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WZ\/WM\u2013IIB\/2\/2024"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The paranasal sinuses, a bilaterally symmetrical system of eight air-filled cavities, represent one of the most complex parts of the equine body. This study aimed to extract morphometric measures from computed tomography (CT) images of the equine head and to implement a clustering analysis for the computer-aided identification of age-related variations. Heads of 18 cadaver horses, aged 2\u201325 years, were CT-imaged and segmented to extract their volume, surface area, and relative density from the frontal sinus (FS), dorsal conchal sinus (DCS), ventral conchal sinus (VCS), rostral maxillary sinus (RMS), caudal maxillary sinus (CMS), sphenoid sinus (SS), palatine sinus (PS), and middle conchal sinus (MCS). Data were grouped into young, middle-aged, and old horse groups and clustered using the K-means clustering algorithm. Morphometric measurements varied according to the sinus position and age of the horses but not the body side. The volume and surface area of the VCS, RMS, and CMS increased with the age of the horses. With accuracy values of 0.72 for RMS, 0.67 for CMS, and 0.31 for VCS, the possibility of the age-related clustering of CT-based 3D images of equine paranasal sinuses was confirmed for RMS and CMS but disproved for VCS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,31]],"date-time":"2024-05-31T03:46:49Z","timestamp":1717127209000},"page":"3538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Three-Dimensional Segmentation of Equine Paranasal Sinuses in Multidetector Computed Tomography Datasets: Preliminary Morphometric Assessment Assisted with Clustering Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0148-9912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Borowska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bia\u0142ystok University of Technology, 15\u2013351 Bialystok, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3598-0945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Lipowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bia\u0142ystok University of Technology, 15\u2013351 Bialystok, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0898-4860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristina","family":"Daunoravi\u010dien\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 03224 Vilnius, Lithuania"}]},{"given":"Bernard","family":"Turek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02\u2013787 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2906-9944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomasz","family":"Jasi\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02\u2013787 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8607-7129","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jolanta","family":"Pauk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bia\u0142ystok University of Technology, 15\u2013351 Bialystok, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9436-1074","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Domino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02\u2013787 Warsaw, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nickel, R., Schummer, A., Seiferle, E., and Sack, W.O. (1979). The Viscera of the Domestic Mammals, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-6814-5"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.2746\/0425164044877404","article-title":"Clinical anatomy of the equine sphenopalatine sinus","volume":"36","author":"McCann","year":"2004","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.13-0172","article-title":"Two-and three-dimensional anatomy of paranasal sinuses in Arabian foals","volume":"76","author":"Bahar","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2005.00008.x","article-title":"Communications of normal nasal and paranasal cavities in computed tomography of horses","volume":"46","author":"Probst","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2009.07.023","article-title":"A description of the relationship between the nasomaxillary aperture and the paranasal sinus system of horses","volume":"186","author":"Tatarniuk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Nickels, F.A., and O\u2019Neill, H. (2019). Equine Surgery, WB Saunders."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(02)00062-7","article-title":"Sinus disease","volume":"19","author":"Freeman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. Equine Prac."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3292.2010.00176.x","article-title":"A review of equine paranasal sinusitis. Aetiopathogenesis, clinical signs and ancillary diagnostic techniques","volume":"23","author":"Dixon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1111\/vru.12080","article-title":"Using semi-automated segmentation of computed tomography datasets for three-dimensional visualization and volume measurements of equine paranasal sinuses","volume":"54","author":"Brinkschulte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.104185","article-title":"Computed tomographic assessment of equine maxillary cheek teeth anatomical relationships, and paranasal sinus volumes","volume":"181","author":"Liuti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"234","article-title":"Evaluation of a 3D computer model of the equine paranasal sinuses as a tool for veterinary anatomy education","volume":"50","author":"Canright","year":"2022","journal-title":"JVME"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580356","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.580356","article-title":"Computed tomographic assessment of individual paranasal sinus compartment and nasal conchal bulla involvement in 300 cases of equine sinonasal disease","volume":"7","author":"Dixon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K\u00f6hler, L., Schulz-Kornas, E., Vervuert, I., Gittel, C., Winter, K., Berner, D., and Gerlach, K. (2021). Volumetric measurements of paranasal sinuses and examination of sinonasal communication in healthy Shetland ponies: Anatomical and morphometric characteristics using computed tomography. BMC Vet. Res., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-021-02748-6"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2225","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.618","article-title":"Applied anatomy of the skull in the Arabian horse: A computed tomographic, cross-sectional, volumetric and morphometric study","volume":"7","author":"Goodarzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.d4844","article-title":"Historical and clinical features of 200 cases of equine sinus disease","volume":"169","author":"Dixon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1053\/tvjl.1999.0371","article-title":"Equine nasal and paranasal sinus tumours: Part 2: A contribution of 28 case reports","volume":"157","author":"Dixon","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870201400408","article-title":"Paranasal meningioma in a horse","volume":"14","author":"Kreeger","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Invest."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1177\/089875641303000304","article-title":"Radiographic appearance of maxillary sinus feed impaction in a horse","volume":"30","author":"Montgomery","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Dent."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ctep.2005.02.016","article-title":"CT of the equine head: Technical considerations, anatomical guide, and selected diseases","volume":"3","author":"Solano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Tech. Equine Prac."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.2746\/095777309X423022","article-title":"Computed tomography in the evaluation of the equine head","volume":"21","author":"Kinns","year":"2009","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.1987.tb02648.x","article-title":"Radiographic examination of the facial, nasal and paranasal sinus regions of the horse. II. Radiological findings","volume":"19","author":"Gibbs","year":"1987","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(17)30415-7","article-title":"Radiographic examination of the equine head","volume":"9","author":"Park","year":"1993","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2003.tb00454.x","article-title":"CT features of alveolitis and sinusitis in horses","volume":"44","author":"Henninger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-010-9381-6","article-title":"Topographic comparative study of paranasal sinuses in adult horses by computed tomography, sinuscopy, and sectional anatomy","volume":"34","author":"Borgonovo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-950X.2009.00579.x","article-title":"Endoscope-guided balloon sinuplasty of the equine nasomaxillary opening","volume":"38","author":"Bell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Surg."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1111\/vsu.14013","article-title":"Comparison of equine paranasal sinus trephination complications and outcome following standing computed tomography, radiography and sinoscopy guided approaches for the treatment of sinusitis","volume":"53","author":"Hopfgartner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Surg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brinkschulte, M., Bienert-Zeit, A., L\u00fcpke, M., Hellige, M., Ohnesorge, B., and Staszyk, C. (2014). The sinonasal communication in the horse: Examinations using computerized three-dimensional reformatted renderings of computed-tomography datasets. BMC Vet. Res., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-6148-10-72"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.21836\/PEM20070105","article-title":"Anatomy of the equine nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses and potential clinical applications as a basis for endoscopy, computed tomography and surgery","volume":"23","author":"Noeller","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pferdeheilkunde"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Brigham, W.H. (2019). 3D Slicer Image Computing Platform, version 4.10, 3D Slicer."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0264.2005.00663.x","article-title":"Conformation of the equine skull: A morphometric study","volume":"35","author":"Evans","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anat. Histol. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s12983-018-0258-9","article-title":"Shape variation and modularity of skull and teeth in domesticated horses and wild equids","volume":"15","author":"Heck","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Zool."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma\u015bko, M., Wierzbicka, M., Zdrojkowski, \u0141., Jasi\u0144ski, T., Sikorska, U., Pawli\u0144ski, B., and Domino, M. (2022). Comparison of donkey, pony, and horse dorsal profiles and head shapes using geometric morphometrics. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12070931"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1177\/089875649100800402","article-title":"The modified Triadan system: Nomenclature for veterinary dentistry","volume":"8","author":"Floyd","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Vet. Dent."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2008.10.001","article-title":"Complications of equine oral surgery","volume":"24","author":"Dixon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Kirkland, K.D. (1995). The Morphology of the Endodontic System, Reserve Crown and Roots of Equine Mandibular Cheek Teeth. [Doctoral Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.79.8.867","article-title":"Use of crown height of the maxillary first molar tooth to approximate the age of horses","volume":"79","author":"Carmalt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2011.00420.x","article-title":"Equine paranasal sinus disease: A long-term study of 200 cases (1997\u20132009): Ancillary diagnostic findings and involvement of the various sinus compartments","volume":"44","author":"Dixon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s41205-020-00069-2","article-title":"DICOM segmentation and STL creation for 3D printing: A process and software package comparison for osseous anatomy","volume":"6","author":"Kamio","year":"2020","journal-title":"3d Print. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.21.10.0471","article-title":"Use of a novel helical fan beam imaging system for computed tomography of the head and neck in sedated standing horses: 120 cases (2019\u20132020)","volume":"260","author":"Brounts","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAVMA"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798216","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.798216","article-title":"The role of computed tomography in imaging non-neurologic disorders of the head in equine patients","volume":"9","author":"Hanna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3538\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:51:25Z","timestamp":1760107885000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3538"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,30]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s24113538"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24113538","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,30]]}}}