{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T18:23:38Z","timestamp":1780338218898,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["52175461"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52175461"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U1864208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U1864208"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U2341275"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2341275"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["20201199"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20201199"]}]},{"name":"Intelligent Manufacturing Project of Tianjin","award":["52175461"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52175461"]}]},{"name":"Intelligent Manufacturing Project of Tianjin","award":["U1864208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U1864208"]}]},{"name":"Intelligent Manufacturing Project of Tianjin","award":["U2341275"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2341275"]}]},{"name":"Intelligent Manufacturing Project of Tianjin","award":["20201199"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20201199"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aiming at the shortcomings of single-sensor sensing information characterization ability, which is easily interfered with by external environmental factors, a method of intelligent perception is proposed in this paper. This method integrates multi-source and multi-level information, including spindle temperature field, spindle thermal deformation, operating parameters, and motor current. Firstly, the internal and external thermal-error-related signals of the spindle system are collected by sensors, and the feature parameters are extracted; then, the radial basis function (RBF) neural network is utilized to realize the preliminary integration of the feature parameters because of the advantages of the RBF neural network, which offers strong multi-dimensional solid nonlinear mapping ability and generalization ability. Thermal-error decision values are then generated by a weighted fusion of different pieces of evidence by considering uncertain information from multiple sources. The spindle thermal-error sensing experiment was based on the spindle system of the VMC850 (Yunnan Machine Tool Group Co., LTD, Yunnan, China) vertical machining center of the Yunnan Machine Tool Factory. Experiments were designed for thermal-error sensing of the spindle under constant speed (2000 r\/min and 4000 r\/min), standard variable speed, and stepped variable speed conditions. The experiment\u2019s results show that the prediction accuracy of the intelligent-sensing model with multi-source information fusion can reach 98.1%, 99.3%, 98.6%, and 98.8% under the above working conditions, respectively. The intelligent-perception model proposed in this paper has higher accuracy and lower residual error than the traditional BP neural network perception and wavelet neural network models. The research in this paper provides a theoretical basis for the operation, maintenance management, and performance optimization of machine tool spindle systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113614","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T10:08:38Z","timestamp":1717409318000},"page":"3614","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Intelligent Sensing of Thermal Error of CNC Machine Tool Spindle Based on Multi-Source Information Fusion"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Zeqing","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Hebei Province on Scale-Span Intelligent Equipment Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beibei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanrui","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yingshu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongwei","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710049, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Strength and Structural Integrity, Aircraft Strength Research Institute of China, Xi\u2019an 710065, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guofeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, Xi\u2019an 710049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Strength and Structural Integrity, Aircraft Strength Research Institute of China, Xi\u2019an 710065, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zonghua","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirp.2012.05.008","article-title":"Thermal issues in machine tools","volume":"61","author":"Josef","year":"2012","journal-title":"CIRP Ann."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirp.2010.05.002","article-title":"Machine tool spindle units","volume":"59","author":"Abele","year":"2010","journal-title":"CIRP Ann. 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