{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T04:36:29Z","timestamp":1773376589415,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,9]],"date-time":"2024-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717891200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program Projects in Liaoning Province","award":["2023JH2\/101800025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023JH2\/101800025"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program Projects in Liaoning Province","award":["DUT22RT(3)090"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DUT22RT(3)090"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023JH2\/101800025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023JH2\/101800025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DUT22RT(3)090"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DUT22RT(3)090"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study introduces a novel fluxgate current sensor with a compact, ring-shaped configuration that exhibits improved performance through the integration of magnetization residence times and neural networks. The sensor distinguishes itself with a unique magnetization profile, denoted as M waves, which emerge from the interaction between the target signal and ambient magnetic interference, effectively enhancing interference suppression. These M waves highlight the non-linear coupling between the magnetic field and magnetization residence times. Detection of these residence times is accomplished using full-wave rectification circuits and a Schmitt trigger, with a digital output provided by timing sequence detection. A dual-layer feedforward neural network deciphers the target signal, exploiting this non-linear relationship. The sensor achieves a linearity error of 0.054% within a measurement range of 15 A. When juxtaposed with conventional sensors utilizing the residence-time difference strategy, our sensor reduces linearity error by more than 40-fold and extends the effective measurement range by 150%. Furthermore, it demonstrates a significant decrease in ambient magnetic interference.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24123752","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,10]],"date-time":"2024-06-10T08:59:06Z","timestamp":1718009946000},"page":"3752","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Design of Fluxgate Current Sensor Based on Magnetization Residence Times and Neural Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1026-1135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingjie","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanshou","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Institute of Aerospace Systems Engineering, Beijing 100076, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xutong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xinpeng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xue","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2009.2013914","article-title":"Current Sensing Techniques: A Review","volume":"9","author":"Ziegler","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112001","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/21\/11\/112001","article-title":"Electric current sensors: A review","volume":"21","author":"Ripka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012054","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/318\/1\/012054","article-title":"The Rogowski Coil Sensor in High Current Application: A Review","volume":"318","author":"Nanyan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, S., Liao, X., Zhang, H., Pang, J., and Zhou, Y. (2021). Recent Progress of Fluxgate Magnetic Sensors: Basic Research and Application. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041500"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22329","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3094830","article-title":"Current Sensing Front-Ends: A Review and Design Guidance","volume":"21","author":"Ying","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1109\/OJIES.2022.3179705","article-title":"Recommendations and typical errors in design of power converter PCBs with shunt sensors","volume":"3","author":"Dianov","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Ind. Electron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.5958\/2277-4912.2016.00028.X","article-title":"A Review Paper on Current Transformer","volume":"5","author":"Rathore","year":"2016","journal-title":"INROADS-Int. J. Jaipur Natl. Univ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10137","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3119766","article-title":"Hall-effect current sensors: Principles of operation and implementation techniques","volume":"22","author":"Crescentini","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rifai, D., Abdalla, A.N., Ali, K., and Razali, R. (2016). Giant magnetoresistance sensors: A review on structures and non-destructive eddy current testing applications. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16030298"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1007\/s11082-016-0719-3","article-title":"Optical fiber current sensor research: Review and outlook","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Wang, J., Li, S., and Cao, B. (2016). A method to simultaneously detect the current sensor fault and estimate the state of energy for batteries in electric vehicles. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16081328"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2019.2896320","article-title":"Mutual calibration of multiple current sensors with accuracy uncertainties in IPMSM drives for electric vehicles","volume":"67","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Komsiyska, L., Buchberger, T., Diehl, S., Ehrensberger, M., Hanzl, C., Hartmann, C., H\u00f6lzle, M., Kleiner, J., Lewerenz, M., and Liebhart, B. (2021). Critical review of intelligent battery systems: Challenges, implementation, and potential for electric vehicles. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14185989"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3157","DOI":"10.1007\/s00202-022-01541-4","article-title":"Speed and current sensor fault-tolerant induction motor drive for electric vehicles based on virtual sensors","volume":"104","author":"Aguilera","year":"2022","journal-title":"Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, B., Zhang, L., Xue, X., Tan, R., Jiang, P., Ma, B., Song, Z., and Hua, W. (2023). A review on the fault and defect diagnosis of lithium-ion battery for electric vehicles. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16145507"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basu, A.K., Tatiya, S., and Bhattacharya, S. (2019). Overview of electric vehicles (EVs) and EV sensors. Sensors for Automotive and Aerospace Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-3290-6_7"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mironenko, O., and Kempton, W. (2020). Comparing Devices for Concurrent Measurement of AC Current and DC Injection during Electric Vehicle Charging. World Electr. Veh. J., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj11030057"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"137","article-title":"Current-Sensing Techniques for Revenue Metering and for Detecting Direct Current Injection from Electric Vehicles","volume":"10","author":"Mironenko","year":"2021","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Electrified Veh."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4004104","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2015.2438541","article-title":"Temperature Characteristics of a Fluxgate Current Sensor With Fe\u2013Ni\u2013Co Ring Core","volume":"51","author":"Watanabe","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2741","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2022.3156572","article-title":"A Duty-Cycled Integrated-Fluxgate Magnetometer for Current Sensing","volume":"57","author":"Garcha","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8002105","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2022.3157052","article-title":"Hybrid Microfluxgate and Current Transformer Sensor","volume":"58","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9503409","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2022.3152861","article-title":"Electrical Compensation for Magnetization Distortion of Magnetic Fluxgate Current Sensor","volume":"71","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134126","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3335653","article-title":"A Wideband Closed-Loop Residual Current Sensor Based on Self-Oscillating Fluxgate","volume":"11","author":"Ding","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9001205","DOI":"10.1109\/TASC.2016.2536619","article-title":"Design Optimization of a Fluxgate Current Sensor With Low Interference","volume":"26","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2876517","article-title":"An Interference-Rejection Strategy for Measurement of Small Current Under Strong Interference With Magnetic Sensor Array","volume":"19","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6782","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2849510","article-title":"The Influence of Interference Sources on a Magnetic Field-Based Current Sensor for Multiconductor Measurement","volume":"18","author":"Itzke","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.110527","article-title":"Split-core magnetoelectric current sensor and wireless current measurement application","volume":"188","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-smt.2017.0433","article-title":"Interference-rejecting current measurement method with tunnel magnetoresistive magnetic sensor array","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"IET Sci. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2517","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2887302","article-title":"A Novel Closed Loop Current Sensor Based on a Circular Array of Magnetic Field Sensors","volume":"19","author":"Weiss","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4005504","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2015.2452267","article-title":"A Fluxgate Current Sensor With a U-Shaped Magnetic Gathering Shell","volume":"51","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, X., Li, W., Qian, G., Ao, G., Xu, X., Wei, R., Ke, Y., and Zhang, W. (2022). Design of a Fluxgate Weak Current Sensor with Anti-Low Frequency Interference Ability. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15228489"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016120","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.67.016120","article-title":"Signal detection via residence-time asymmetry in noisy bistable devices","volume":"67","author":"Bulsara","year":"2003","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2005.853598","article-title":"\u201cResidence times difference\u201d fluxgate magnetometers","volume":"5","author":"Ando","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2010.2089576","article-title":"Exploiting Nonlinear Dynamics in Novel Measurement Strategies and Devices: From Theory to Experiments and Applications","volume":"60","author":"Baglio","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11819","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2936552","article-title":"Performance Degradation Effect Countermeasures in Residence Times Difference (RTD) Fluxgate Magnetic Sensors","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11539","DOI":"10.3390\/s130911539","article-title":"Research on the dynamic hysteresis loop model of the residence times difference (RTD)-fluxgate","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2007.04.013","article-title":"Towards an optimal readout of a residence times difference (RTD) Fluxgate magnetometer","volume":"142","author":"Ascia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2016.2644918","article-title":"Flexible Microwire Residence Times Difference Fluxgate Magnetometer","volume":"66","author":"Trigona","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pang, N., Wang, D., Yang, Y., and Wang, R. (2023). Research on a Time Difference Processing Method for RTD-Fluxgate Data Based on the Combination of the Mahalanobis Distance and Group Covariance. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23229223"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2791218","article-title":"Measurements of Iron Compound Content in the Brain Using a Flexible Core Fluxgate Magnetometer at Room Temperature","volume":"67","author":"Trigona","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2878612","article-title":"A Fluxgate-Based Approach for Ion Beam Current Measurement in ECRIS Beamline: Design and Preliminary Investigations","volume":"68","author":"Baglio","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1109\/MIM.2020.8979517","article-title":"RTD-Fluxgate magnetometers for detecting iron accumulation in the brain","volume":"23","author":"Trigona","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Instrum. Meas. Mag."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(98)00280-5","article-title":"Analysis of the fluxgate response through a simple spice model","volume":"75","author":"Trujillo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-smt:20060054","article-title":"Magnetic core model","volume":"1","author":"Guerra","year":"2007","journal-title":"IET Sci. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"KOHSHIN (2024, May 31). HF-A06V0625PP5D. Available online: https:\/\/www.kohshin-ele.com\/en\/products\/currentsensor\/fluxgate\/HF\/HF-A\/."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmmm.2020.167368","article-title":"Low-power self-oscillating fluxgate current sensor based on Mn-Zn ferrite cores","volume":"518","author":"Ponjavic","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/12\/3752\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:56:06Z","timestamp":1760108166000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/12\/3752"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,9]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s24123752"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24123752","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,9]]}}}