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This research aims to address the crucial need for real-time and accurate drowsiness detection to mitigate the impact of fatigue-related accidents. Leveraging ultra-wideband radar data collected over five minutes, the dataset was segmented into one-minute chunks and transformed into grayscale images. Spatial features are retrieved from the images using a two-dimensional Convolutional Neural Network. Following that, these features were used to train and test multiple machine learning classifiers. The ensemble classifier RF-XGB-SVM, which combines Random Forest, XGBoost, and Support Vector Machine using a hard voting criterion, performed admirably with an accuracy of 96.6%. Additionally, the proposed approach was validated with a robust k-fold score of 97% and a standard deviation of 0.018, demonstrating significant results. The dataset is augmented using Generative Adversarial Networks, resulting in improved accuracies for all models. Among them, the RF-XGB-SVM model outperformed the rest with an accuracy score of 99.58%.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24123754","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,10]],"date-time":"2024-06-10T08:59:06Z","timestamp":1718009946000},"page":"3754","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Ultra-Wide Band Radar Empowered Driver Drowsiness Detection with Convolutional Spatial Feature Engineering and Artificial Intelligence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0671-2060","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hafeez Ur Rehman","family":"Siddiqui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Abu Dhabi Road, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Punjab, Pakistan"}]},{"given":"Ambreen","family":"Akmal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Abu Dhabi Road, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Punjab, Pakistan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9587-3311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Iqbal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer and Software Engineering, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Punjab, Pakistan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2468-8471","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adil Ali","family":"Saleem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Abu Dhabi Road, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Punjab, Pakistan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8881-1307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Amjad","family":"Raza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Abu Dhabi Road, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Punjab, Pakistan"}]},{"given":"Kainat","family":"Zafar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Abu Dhabi Road, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Punjab, Pakistan"}]},{"given":"Aqsa","family":"Zaib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Abu Dhabi Road, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Punjab, Pakistan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6431-5357","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Dudley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Research Centre, School of Engineering, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK"}]},{"given":"Jon","family":"Arambarri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Internacional do Cuanza, Cuito EN250, Angola"},{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Universitaria Internacional de Colombia, Bogot\u00e1 111321, Colombia"},{"name":"Universidad Internacional Iberoamericana, Campeche 24560, Mexico"}]},{"given":"\u00c1ngel Kuc","family":"Castilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Internacional do Cuanza, Cuito EN250, Angola"},{"name":"Universidad de La Romana, La Romana 22000, Dominican Republic"},{"name":"Universidad Europea del Atl\u00e1ntico, Isabel Torres 21, 39011 Santander, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8403-1047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Furqan","family":"Rustam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, National College of Ireland, Dublin D01 K6W2, Ireland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2013.1429","article-title":"Sleep-deprived young drivers and the risk for crash: The DRIVE prospective cohort study","volume":"167","author":"Martiniuk","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2015). 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