{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T07:24:57Z","timestamp":1776842697543,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,15]],"date-time":"2024-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718409600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MIUR (Ministero dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 e della Ricerca)","award":["B27E19000030007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B27E19000030007"]}]},{"name":"MIUR (Ministero dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 e della Ricerca)","award":["B82F20000810001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B82F20000810001"]}]},{"name":"MIUR (Ministero dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 e della Ricerca)","award":["CUP_B63C22000730005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP_B63C22000730005"]}]},{"name":"CIR01_00016 SHINE Project\u2014Potenziamento dei nodi italiani in E-RIHS","award":["B27E19000030007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B27E19000030007"]}]},{"name":"CIR01_00016 SHINE Project\u2014Potenziamento dei nodi italiani in E-RIHS","award":["B82F20000810001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B82F20000810001"]}]},{"name":"CIR01_00016 SHINE Project\u2014Potenziamento dei nodi italiani in E-RIHS","award":["CUP_B63C22000730005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP_B63C22000730005"]}]},{"name":"PNRR H2IOSC (Humanities and Cultural Heritage Italian Open Science Cloud) Project (IR0000029)","award":["B27E19000030007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B27E19000030007"]}]},{"name":"PNRR H2IOSC (Humanities and Cultural Heritage Italian Open Science Cloud) Project (IR0000029)","award":["B82F20000810001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B82F20000810001"]}]},{"name":"PNRR H2IOSC (Humanities and Cultural Heritage Italian Open Science Cloud) Project (IR0000029)","award":["CUP_B63C22000730005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP_B63C22000730005"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thanks to the recent development of innovative instruments and software with high accuracy and resolution, 3D modelling provides useful insights in several sectors (from industrial metrology to cultural heritage). Moreover, the 3D reconstruction of objects of artistic interest is becoming mandatory, not only because of the risks to which works of art are increasingly exposed (e.g., wars and climatic disasters) but also because of the leading role that the virtual fruition of art is taking. In this work, we compared the performance of four 3D instruments based on different working principles and techniques (laser micro-profilometry, structured-light topography and the phase-shifting method) by measuring four samples of different sizes, dimensions and surface characteristics. We aimed to assess the capabilities and limitations of these instruments to verify their accuracy and the technical specifications given in the suppliers\u2019 data sheets. To this end, we calculated the point densities and extracted several profiles from the models to evaluate both their lateral (XY) and axial (Z) resolution. A comparison between the nominal resolution values and those calculated on samples representative of cultural artefacts was used to predict the performance of the instruments in real case studies. Overall, the purpose of this comparison is to provide a quantitative assessment of the performance of the instruments that allows for their correct application to works of art according to their specific characteristics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24123876","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,17]],"date-time":"2024-06-17T06:29:43Z","timestamp":1718605783000},"page":"3876","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["A Performance Comparison of 3D Survey Instruments for Their Application in the Cultural Heritage Field"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2471-3105","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irene","family":"Lunghi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council-National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Largo E. Fermi 6, 50125 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5575-3679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma","family":"Vannini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council-National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Largo E. Fermi 6, 50125 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7960-2546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice","family":"Dal Fovo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council-National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Largo E. Fermi 6, 50125 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Di Sarno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council-National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078 Pozzuoli (NA), Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alessandra","family":"Rocco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council-National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078 Pozzuoli (NA), Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raffaella","family":"Fontana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council-National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), Largo E. Fermi 6, 50125 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.01.828","article-title":"A Case Study on Use of 3D Scanning for Reverse Engineering and Quality Control","volume":"45","author":"Helle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.03.008","article-title":"High-Resolution Topography for Understanding Earth Surface Processes: Opportunities and Challenges","volume":"216","author":"Tarolli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125601","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3331118","article-title":"Biometric Recognition in 3D Medical Images: A Survey","volume":"11","author":"Fu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsisyn.2021.100205","article-title":"3D Forensic Science: A New Field Integrating 3D Imaging and 3D Printing in Crime Reconstruction","volume":"3","author":"Carew","year":"2021","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Synerg."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2023.104716","article-title":"3D Visualisations for Communicative Urban and Landscape Planning: What Systematic Mapping of Academic Literature Can Tell Us of Their Potential?","volume":"234","author":"Eilola","year":"2023","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tribhuvan, A.P. (2024). Preserving Our Past: A Thorough Examination of Methods and Technologies in Digital Heritage. Preprints, 2024051185.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202405.1185.v1"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.3390\/s90100568","article-title":"State-of-The-Art and Applications of 3D Imaging Sensors in Industry, Cultural Heritage, Medicine, and Criminal Investigation","volume":"9","author":"Sansoni","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"e00133","article-title":"Heritage Documentation Using Laser Scanner and Photogrammetry. The Case Study of Qasr Al-Abidit, Jordan","volume":"16","author":"Alshawabkeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Digit. Appl. Archaeol. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3061104","article-title":"Heritage Recording and 3D Modeling with Photogrammetry and 3D Scanning","volume":"3","author":"Remondino","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1561\/0600000007","article-title":"3D Reconstruction from Multiple Images Part 1: Principles","volume":"4","author":"Moons","year":"2008","journal-title":"Found. Trends\u00ae Comput. Graph. Vis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pietroni, E., and Ferdani, D. (2021). Virtual Restoration and Virtual Reconstruction in Cultural Heritage: Terminology, Methodologies, Visual Representation Techniques and Cognitive Models. Information, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/info12040167"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pamart, A., Abergel, V., De Luca, L., and Veron, P. (2023). Toward a Data Fusion Index for the Assessment and Enhancement of 3D Multimodal Reconstruction of Built Cultural Heritage. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15092408"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1007\/s11831-019-09320-4","article-title":"Computational Methods of Acquisition and Processing of 3D Point Cloud Data for Construction Applications","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Comput. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"377","article-title":"Comparing time-of-flight and phase-shift. The survey of the royal pantheon in the basilica of San Isidoro (Le\u00f3n)","volume":"38","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2015.07.005","article-title":"Towards the Definition of Best 3D Practices in Archaeology: Assessing 3D Documentation Techniques for Intra-Site Data Recording","volume":"17","author":"Galeazzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwoczynska, B., Litwin, U., Piech, I., Obirek, P., and Sledz, J. (2016, January 2\u20134). The Use of Terrestrial Laser Scanning in Surveying Historic Buildings. Proceedings of the 2016 Baltic Geodetic Congress (BGC Geomatics), Gdansk, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/BGC.Geomatics.2016.54"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVIII-M-2-2023-155-2023","article-title":"Few shot photogrametry: A comparison between NeRF and MVS-SFM for the documentation of cultural heritage","volume":"48","author":"Balloni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Beraldin, J.-A., Remondino, F., and Shortis, M.R. (2007). Performance Evaluation of a Coded Structured Light System for Cultural Heritage Applications. Videometrics IX, Proceedings of the Electronic Imaging 2007, San Jose, CA, USA, 28 January\u20131 February 2007, SPIE."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Webster, J.G. (2016). Structured Light Techniques and Applications. Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"14","article-title":"3D Modeling of the Weary Herakles Statue with a Coded Structured Light System","volume":"36","author":"Akca","year":"2006","journal-title":"IAPRS"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2008.06.028","article-title":"Structured Light Scanning for High-Resolution Documentation of In Situ Archaeological Finds","volume":"36","author":"McPherron","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2018.11.001","article-title":"Deformation Analysis of Leonardo Da Vinci\u2019s \u201cAdorazione Dei Magi\u201d through Temporal Unrelated 3D Digitization","volume":"38","author":"Palma","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazzocato, S., and Daffara, C. (2021). Experiencing the Untouchable: A Method for Scientific Exploration and Haptic Fruition of Artworks Microsurface Based on Optical Scanning Profilometry. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21134311"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dal Fovo, A., Striova, J., Pampaloni, E., and Fontana, R. (2021). Unveiling the Invisible in Uffizi Gallery\u2019s Drawing 8P by Leonardo with Non-Invasive Optical Techniques. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11177995"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2023.11.014","article-title":"Integrated Microprofilometry and Multispectral Imaging for Full-Field Analysis of Ancient Manuscripts","volume":"66","author":"Mazzocato","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dal Fovo, A., Mart\u00ednez-Weinbaum, M., Oujja, M., Castillejo, M., and Fontana, R. (2023). Reflectance Spectroscopy as a Novel Tool for Thickness Measurements of Paint Layers. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28124683"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasiljevi\u0107, I., Obradovi\u0107, R., \u0110uri\u0107, I., Popkonstantinovi\u0107, B., Budak, I., Kuli\u0107, L., and Milojevi\u0107, Z. (2021). Copyright Protection of 3D Digitized Artistic Sculptures by Adding Unique Local Inconspicuous Errors by Sculptors. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11167481"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W18-135-2019","article-title":"Shining 3D Einscan-Pro, application and validation in the field of cultural heritage, from the Chillida-Leku Museum to the Archaeological Museum of Sarno","volume":"42","author":"Morena","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2024, March 27). Einscan.com. Available online: https:\/\/www.einscan.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/EinScan-Pro-2X-Quick-Guide-1112.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.17814\/atim.2016.2(7).42","article-title":"3D Scanning of the Painting for the Purpose of Performing a Measurement of Deformations of the Wooden Panel Painting Support","volume":"3","author":"Lewandowski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Technol. Mech."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2023, July 27). Smarttech3dscanner.com. Available online: https:\/\/smarttech3dscanner.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/MICRON3D_color_katalog_ang_v1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W9-639-2019","article-title":"3D cameras acquisitions for the documentation of cultural heritage","volume":"42","author":"Pulcrano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adamopoulos, E., Rinaudo, F., and Ardissono, L. (2020). A Critical Comparison of 3D Digitization Techniques for Heritage Objects. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10010010"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2024, March 27). Media.faro.com. Available online: https:\/\/media.faro.com\/-\/media\/Project\/FARO\/FARO\/FARO\/Resources\/1_BROCHURE\/2022\/FARO-Sphere\/AEC_Focus-Premium\/3154_Brochure_FocusPremium_AEC_ITA_A4.pdf?rev=85dfa574707b4100994fff2644294562."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1117\/12.501252","article-title":"High-Precision Surface Analysis of the Roughness of Michelangelo\u2019s David","volume":"Volume 5146","author":"Fontana","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Optical Metrology for Arts and Multimedia"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"118","article-title":"Optical Micro-Profilometry for Archaeology","volume":"Volume 5857","author":"Carcagni","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Optical Methods for Arts and Archaeology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moyano, J., Nieto-Juli\u00e1n, J.E., Bienvenido-Huertas, D., and Mar\u00edn-Garc\u00eda, D. (2020). Validation of Close-Range Photogrammetry for Architectural and Archaeological Heritage: Analysis of Point Density and 3D Mesh Geometry. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12213571"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karami, A., Menna, F., and Remondino, F. (2022). Combining Photogrammetry and Photometric Stereo to Achieve Precise and Complete 3D Reconstruction. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218172"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1739","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.53.001739","article-title":"Application of 3D Digital Image Correlation to Track Displacements and Strains of Canvas Paintings Exposed to Relative Humidity Changes","volume":"53","author":"Malowany","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/12\/3876\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:59:14Z","timestamp":1760108354000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/12\/3876"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,15]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s24123876"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24123876","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,15]]}}}