{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T07:05:13Z","timestamp":1778223913460,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,20]],"date-time":"2024-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62173319"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62173319"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62063006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62063006"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62273327"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62273327"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2022B1515120067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022B1515120067"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["KCXFZ20211020165003005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KCXFZ20211020165003005"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","award":["62173319"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62173319"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","award":["62063006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62063006"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","award":["62273327"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62273327"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","award":["2022B1515120067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022B1515120067"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","award":["KCXFZ20211020165003005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KCXFZ20211020165003005"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["62173319"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62173319"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["62063006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62063006"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["62273327"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62273327"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["2022B1515120067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022B1515120067"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["KCXFZ20211020165003005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KCXFZ20211020165003005"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) is a hot research area that is widely required in many robotics applications. In SLAM technology, it is essential to explore an accurate and efficient map model to represent the environment and develop the corresponding data association methods needed to achieve reliable matching from measurements to maps. These two key elements impact the working stability of the SLAM system, especially in complex scenarios. However, previous literature has not fully addressed the problems of efficient mapping and accurate data association. In this article, we propose a novel hash multi-scale (H-MS) map to ensure query efficiency with accurate modeling. In the proposed map, the inserted map point will simultaneously participate in modeling voxels of different scales in a voxel group, enabling the map to represent objects of different scales in the environment effectively. Meanwhile, the root node of the voxel group is saved to a hash table for efficient access. Secondly, considering the one-to-many (1 \u00d7103 order of magnitude) high computational data association problem caused by maintaining multi-scale voxel landmarks simultaneously in the H-MS map, we further propose a bidirectional matching algorithm (MSBM). This algorithm utilizes forward\u2013reverse\u2013forward projection to balance the efficiency and accuracy problem. The proposed H-MS map and MSBM algorithm are integrated into a completed LiDAR SLAM (HMS-SLAM) system. Finally, we validated the proposed map model, matching algorithm, and integrated system on the public KITTI dataset. The experimental results show that, compared with the ikd tree map, the H-MS map model has higher insertion and deletion efficiency, both having O(1) time complexity. The computational efficiency and accuracy of the MSBM algorithm are better than that of the small-scale priority matching algorithm, and the computing speed of the MSBM achieves 49 ms\/time under a single CPU thread. In addition, the HMS-SLAM system built in this article has also reached excellent performance in terms of mapping accuracy and memory usage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24124011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,21]],"date-time":"2024-06-21T03:44:49Z","timestamp":1718941489000},"page":"4011","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Accurate 3D LiDAR SLAM System Based on Hash Multi-Scale Map and Bidirectional Matching Algorithm"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8641-3989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tingchen","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Robotics and Intelligent System, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lingxin","family":"Kong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Robotics and Intelligent System, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2998-267X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongsheng","family":"Ou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5086-4152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sheng","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Robotics and Intelligent System, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2015.2463671","article-title":"ORB-SLAM: A versatile and accurate monocular SLAM system","volume":"31","author":"Montiel","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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