{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T17:42:47Z","timestamp":1770918167384,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,30]],"date-time":"2024-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1719705600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012906","name":"The Overseas Taishan Scholars Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["tshw201502042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["tshw201502042"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012906","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012906","name":"The Overseas Taishan Scholars Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZR2021QF031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021QF031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012906","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012906","name":"The Overseas Taishan Scholars Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023M743757"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M743757"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012906","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012906","name":"The Overseas Taishan Scholars Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SDCX-ZG-202400308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SDCX-ZG-202400308"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012906","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012905","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["tshw201502042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["tshw201502042"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012905","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012905","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZR2021QF031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021QF031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012905","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012905","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023M743757"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M743757"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012905","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012905","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SDCX-ZG-202400308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SDCX-ZG-202400308"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012905","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["tshw201502042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["tshw201502042"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZR2021QF031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021QF031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023M743757"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M743757"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SDCX-ZG-202400308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SDCX-ZG-202400308"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Postdoctoral Innovation Project of Shandong Province","award":["tshw201502042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["tshw201502042"]}]},{"name":"Postdoctoral Innovation Project of Shandong Province","award":["ZR2021QF031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021QF031"]}]},{"name":"Postdoctoral Innovation Project of Shandong Province","award":["2023M743757"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M743757"]}]},{"name":"Postdoctoral Innovation Project of Shandong Province","award":["SDCX-ZG-202400308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SDCX-ZG-202400308"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the transformation and development of the automotive industry, low-cost and seamless indoor and outdoor positioning has become a research hotspot for modern vehicles equipped with in-vehicle infotainment systems, Internet of Vehicles, or other intelligent systems (such as Telematics Box, Autopilot, etc.). This paper analyzes modern vehicles in different configurations and proposes a low-cost, versatile indoor non-visual semantic mapping and localization solution based on low-cost sensors. Firstly, the sliding window-based semantic landmark detection method is designed to identify non-visual semantic landmarks (e.g., entrance\/exit, ramp entrance\/exit, road node). Then, we construct an indoor non-visual semantic map that includes the vehicle trajectory waypoints, non-visual semantic landmarks, and Wi-Fi fingerprints of RSS features. Furthermore, to estimate the position of modern vehicles in the constructed semantic maps, we proposed a graph-optimized localization method based on landmark matching that exploits the correlation between non-visual semantic landmarks. Finally, field experiments are conducted in two shopping mall scenes with different underground parking layouts to verify the proposed non-visual semantic mapping and localization method. The results show that the proposed method achieves a high accuracy of 98.1% in non-visual semantic landmark detection and a low localization error of 1.31 m.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24134263","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,1]],"date-time":"2024-07-01T10:14:46Z","timestamp":1719828886000},"page":"4263","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Multi-Sensor-Assisted Low-Cost Indoor Non-Visual Semantic Map Construction and Localization for Modern Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1079-1680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guangxiao","family":"Shao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China"}]},{"given":"Fanyu","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sino-German Institute Science and Technology, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Haier College, Qingdao Technical College, Qingdao 266555, China"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Shao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation and Electronic Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0294-5636","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wennan","family":"Chai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sino-German Institute Science and Technology, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaorui","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation and Electronic Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China"}]},{"given":"Mingyue","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sino-German Institute Science and Technology, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0551-3553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhen","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science & Technology, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China"}]},{"given":"Qingdang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sino-German Institute Science and Technology, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2021.05.006","article-title":"Crowdsourcing-Based Indoor Mapping Using Smartphones: A Survey","volume":"177","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10606","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3004496","article-title":"AtLAS: An Activity-Based Indoor Localization and Semantic Labeling Mechanism for Residences","volume":"7","author":"Niu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.1007\/s10514-020-09941-w","article-title":"RGB-D Camera Calibration and Trajectory Estimation for Indoor Mapping","volume":"44","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Auton. Robot."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez, P., Mora, A., Garrido, S., Barber, R., and Moreno, L. (2022). Multi-LiDAR Mapping for Scene Segmentation in Indoor Environments for Mobile Robots. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103690"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2022.3226071","article-title":"Wheel-SLAM: Simultaneous Localization and Terrain Mapping Using One Wheel-Mounted IMU","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5386","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3103662","article-title":"Real-World Deployment of Low-Cost Indoor Positioning Systems for Industrial Applications","volume":"22","author":"Silva","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5299","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2023.3293354","article-title":"UWB Radar SLAM: An Anchorless Approach in Vision Denied Indoor Environments","volume":"8","author":"Premachandra","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2020.12.019","article-title":"DP-SLAM: A Visual SLAM with Moving Probability towards Dynamic Environments","volume":"556","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24190","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2022.3204917","article-title":"Nonparametric Background Model-Based LiDAR SLAM in Highly Dynamic Urban Environments","volume":"23","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transport. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.22062","article-title":"DE-SLAM: SLAM for Highly Dynamic Environment","volume":"39","author":"Xing","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43563","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2977684","article-title":"Dynamic Scene Semantics SLAM Based on Semantic Segmentation","volume":"8","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-022-02898-x","article-title":"Generating Indoor Wi-Fi Fingerprint Map Based on Crowdsourcing","volume":"28","author":"Ji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8479","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3050456","article-title":"Kalman Filter-Based Data Fusion of Wi-Fi RTT and PDR for Indoor Localization","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4660","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2021.3053942","article-title":"AI-Enabled Fingerprinting and Crowdsource-Based Vehicle Localization for Resilient and Safe Transportation Systems","volume":"22","author":"Shit","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transport. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2019.2962183","article-title":"Visual Map-Based Localization for Intelligent Vehicles from Multi-View Site Matching","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transport. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-018-0130-x","article-title":"Simultaneous Localization and Mapping in the Epoch of Semantics: A Survey","volume":"17","author":"Sualeh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Control Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21932","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3181994","article-title":"Efficient Distributed Particle Filter for Robust Range-Only SLAM","volume":"9","author":"Xiong","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-017-0742-z","article-title":"Critical Rays Self-Adaptive Particle Filtering SLAM","volume":"92","author":"Song","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1458","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2022.3169442","article-title":"EKF-LOAM: An Adaptive Fusion of LiDAR SLAM with Wheel Odometry and Inertial Data for Confined Spaces with Few Geometric Features","volume":"19","author":"Junior","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Automat. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2020.3016873","article-title":"Experimental Results and Posterior Cram\u00e9r\u2013Rao Bound Analysis of EKF-Based Radar SLAM with Odometer Bias Compensation","volume":"57","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, W., Zhou, C., Shang, G., Wang, X., Li, Z., Xu, C., and Hu, K. (2022). SLAM Overview: From Single Sensor to Heterogeneous Fusion. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14236033"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5344","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3046306","article-title":"Static LiDAR Assisted UWB Anchor Nodes Localization","volume":"22","author":"Kolakowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14534","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3278723","article-title":"FGO-GIL: Factor Graph Optimization-Based GNSS RTK\/INS\/LiDAR Tightly Coupled Integration for Precise and Continuous Navigation","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2022.105333","article-title":"InterpolationSLAM: An Effective Visual SLAM System Based on Interpolation Network","volume":"115","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2017.2658577","article-title":"Direct Sparse Odometry","volume":"40","author":"Engel","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17415","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3285786","article-title":"PVI-DSO: Leveraging Planar Regularities for Direct Sparse Visual-Inertial Odometry","volume":"23","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2016.2623335","article-title":"SVO: Semidirect Visual Odometry for Monocular and Multicamera Systems","volume":"33","author":"Forster","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1874","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2021.3075644","article-title":"ORB-SLAM3: An Accurate Open-Source Library for Visual, Visual\u2013Inertial, and Multimap SLAM","volume":"37","author":"Campos","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2017.2705103","article-title":"ORB-SLAM2: An Open-Source SLAM System for Monocular, Stereo, and RGB-D Cameras","volume":"33","author":"Tardos","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chai, W., Li, C., Zhang, M., Sun, Z., Yuan, H., Lin, F., and Li, Q. (2021). An Enhanced Pedestrian Visual-Inertial SLAM System Aided with Vanishing Point in Indoor Environments. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21227428"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-022-01730-0","article-title":"A Novel Method for Distinguishing Indoor Dynamic and Static Semantic Objects Based on Deep Learning and Space Constraints in Visual-Inertial SLAM","volume":"106","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-012-9365-8","article-title":"Visual Simultaneous Localization and Mapping: A Survey","volume":"43","year":"2015","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6907","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2021.3063477","article-title":"A Comparative Analysis of LiDAR SLAM-Based Indoor Navigation for Autonomous Vehicles","volume":"23","author":"Zou","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transport. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Chai, W., Liu, Z., Jiang, S., Li, L., Zhou, J., and Pan, L. (2021). The Invention Relates to a Method and System for Identifying Track Signposts, CN201910461999.2."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Chai, W., Liu, Z., Jiang, S., Li, L., Zhou, J., and Pan, L. (2021). The Invention Relates to a Method and System for Updating Track Signposts, CN201910461925.9."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10093","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-021-05774-5","article-title":"Real-Time Indoor Localization Using Smartphone Magnetic with LSTM Networks","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neural Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3321","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3227952","article-title":"Indoor Geomagnetic Positioning Using Direction-Aware Multiscale Recurrent Neural Networks","volume":"23","author":"Shu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2015.02.001","article-title":"Autonomous Smartphone-Based WiFi Positioning System by Using Access Points Localization and Crowdsourcing","volume":"18","author":"Zhuang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2012.02.005","article-title":"Information Geometry of Target Tracking Sensor Networks","volume":"14","author":"Cheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inf. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2019.101085","article-title":"WKNN Indoor Location Algorithm Based on Zone Partition by Spatial Features and Restriction of Former Location","volume":"60","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30591","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2973212","article-title":"A Novel Weighted KNN Algorithm Based on RSS Similarity and Position Distance for Wi-Fi Fingerprint Positioning","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2470","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3226821","article-title":"Multi-Sensor Fusion-Based Indoor Single-Track Semantic Map Construction and Localization","volume":"23","author":"Chai","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Chai, W., Yang, X., and Li, Q. (2022). Crowdsourcing-Based Indoor Semantic Map Construction and Localization Using Graph Optimization. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22166263"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2020.02.103","article-title":"Sparse Semantic Map Building and Relocalization for UGV Using 3D Point Clouds in Outdoor Environments","volume":"400","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/13\/4263\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:08:16Z","timestamp":1760108896000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/13\/4263"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,30]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s24134263"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24134263","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,30]]}}}