{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T18:03:57Z","timestamp":1777658637435,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]],"date-time":"2024-07-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1720656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61671054"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61671054"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to the scheme of fixed-platform beam-steering radar and the space of the blast furnace being subjected to harsh environmental influences, the traditional detection methods of burden surface are limited by geometric distortion, noncoherent clutter, and noise interference, which leads to an increase in the image entropy value and the equivalent number of views, makes the density distribution of burden surface show a diffuse state, and greatly affects the stability and accuracy. In this paper, a new fixed-platform beam-steering radar synthetic aperture radar imaging method (FPBS-SAR) is proposed in the sensory domain of the blast furnace environment. From the perspective of fixed-platform beam-steering radar motion characteristics, the target range\u2013azimuth coupled distance history model under the sub-aperture is established, the azimuthal Doppler variation characteristics of the fixed-platform beam-steering process are analyzed, and the compensation function of the transform domain for geometric disturbance correction is proposed. For noncoherent noise suppression in blast furnaces, the trimmed geometric mean-order-likelihood CFAR method is proposed to take into account the information of burden surface and clutter suppression. To verify the method, point target simulation and imaging for the industrial field measurement data are carried out. The results indicate that geometric distortion is well eliminated, the image entropy value and the equivalent number of views have decreased, and noncoherent noise in blast furnaces is suppressed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24144479","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]],"date-time":"2024-07-11T11:33:22Z","timestamp":1720697602000},"page":"4479","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Sub-Aperture Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging of Fixed-Platform Beam-Steering Radar for Blast Furnace Burden Surface Detection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8633-9666","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lifu","family":"Deng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automation and Electrical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4113-6994","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xianzhong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automation and Electrical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Knowledge Automation for Industrial Processes of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qingwen","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automation and Electrical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Knowledge Automation for Industrial Processes of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2500213","article-title":"Detection of blast furnace stockline based on a spatial\u2013temporal characteristic cooperative method","volume":"70","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2019.05.047","article-title":"Numerical investigation of burden distribution in ironmaking blast furnace","volume":"353","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7928","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3045973","article-title":"A blast furnace burden surface deeplearning detection system based on radar spectrum restructured by entropy weight","volume":"21","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2233","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2908989","article-title":"Data-driven multiobjective optimization for burden surface in blast furnace with feedback compensation","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6228","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2723620","article-title":"Sub-Nyquist SAR via Fourier domain range-Doppler processing","volume":"55","author":"Aberman","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"4502213","article-title":"A Novel Non-Contact and Real-Time Blast Furnace Stockline Detection Method Based on Burden Surface Video Streams","volume":"72","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6478","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2974253","article-title":"3D topography measurement and completion method of blast furnace burden surface using high-temperature industrial endoscope","volume":"20","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6044","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2022.3155626","article-title":"Depth estimation from a single image of blast furnace burden surface based on edge defocus tracking","volume":"32","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2048","DOI":"10.2355\/isijinternational.52.2048","article-title":"3-Dimension imaging system of burden surface with 6-radars array in a blast furnace","volume":"52","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISIJ Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.2355\/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2019-362","article-title":"Tracking the burden surface radial profile of a blast furnace by a B-mode mechanical swing radar system","volume":"60","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISIJ Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5893","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2445494","article-title":"BLASTDAR\u2014A large radar sensor array system for blast furnace burden surface imaging","volume":"15","author":"Zankl","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1109\/MGRS.2021.3097894","article-title":"Spaceborne synthetic aperture radar imaging algorithms: An overview","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Mag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2429915","article-title":"Motion and Doppler characteristics analysis based on circular motion model in geosynchronous SAR","volume":"9","author":"Zeng","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Zhao, B., Qi, X., Deng, Y., Wang, R., Song, H., and Luo, Y. (2012, January 22\u201327). A new method of improving the accuracy of the hyperbolic range equation. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Y., Wang, P., Men, Z., Chen, J., Zhou, X., He, T., and Cui, L. (2023). A Modified Range Doppler Algorithm for High-Squint SAR Data Imaging. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15174200"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, J., Zhang, Q., Huang, W., Wang, H., Lu, W., and Liu, X. (2023). Deceptive Jamming Algorithm against Synthetic Aperture Radar in Large Squint Angle Mode Based on Non-Linear Chirp Scaling and Low Azimuth Sampling Reconstruction. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15235446"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3573","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2018.2802545","article-title":"A modified CSA based on joint time-Doppler resampling for MEO SAR stripmap mode","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7436","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2018.2852062","article-title":"A modified fixed-point chirp scaling algorithm based on updating phase factors regionally for spaceborne SAR real-time imaging","volume":"56","author":"Ding","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, J., Li, L., Li, H., Ke, M., Ma, X., and Sun, X. (2023). An Improved UAV Bi-SAR Imaging Algorithm with Two-Dimensional Spatial Variant Range Cell Migration Correction and Azimuth Non-Linear Phase Equalization. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15153734"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Y., Liang, D., Fang, T., Zhou, Z.-X., Zhang, H., and Wang, R. (October, January 26). A modified extended wavenumber-domain algorithm for ultra-high resolution spaceborne spotlight SAR data processing. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2020\u20132020 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS39084.2020.9324680"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2019.02.023","article-title":"A modified Omega-K algorithm for squint circular trace scanning SAR using improved range model","volume":"160","author":"Liao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4503405","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2022.3140865","article-title":"A two-step wide-scene polar format algorithm for high-resolution highly-squinted SAR","volume":"19","author":"Nie","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6974","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2909729","article-title":"High-speed maneuvering platforms squint beam-steering SAR imaging without subaperture","volume":"57","author":"Bie","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1109\/TTHZ.2012.2199113","article-title":"Towards three-dimensional millimeter-wave radar with the bistatic fast-factorized back-projection algorithm\u2014Potential and limitations","volume":"2","author":"Moll","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Terahertz Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"5217114","article-title":"A Fast Cartesian Back-Projection Algorithm Based on Ground Surface Grid for GEO SAR Focusing","volume":"60","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5230112","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2022.3184709","article-title":"An advanced scheme for range ambiguity suppression of spaceborne SAR based on blind source separation","volume":"60","author":"Chang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"5221416","article-title":"Airport runway foreign object debris detection system based on arc-scanning SAR technology","volume":"60","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"4025305","article-title":"A general CA-CFAR performance analysis for weibull-distributed clutter environments","volume":"19","author":"Alvarado","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2022.3187138","article-title":"Collaborative Sensing in Internet of Things: A Comprehensive Survey","volume":"24","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, X., Yang, C., Zhou, C., and Shi, Z. (2023, January 10\u201312). Bayesian CFAR Detector in Weibull Clutter via Interference Control. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE\/CIC International Conference on Communications in China (ICCC), Dalian, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCC57788.2023.10233537"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2020.2992744","article-title":"Nonambiguous image formation for low-earth-orbit SAR with geosynchronous illumination based on multireceiving and CAMP","volume":"59","author":"An","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/14\/4479\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:15:00Z","timestamp":1760109300000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/14\/4479"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s24144479"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24144479","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]]}}}