{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T05:28:49Z","timestamp":1780637329213,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,21]],"date-time":"2024-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["5227829"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5227829"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2022J02016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022J02016"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["XRC-23030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XRC-23030"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province, China","award":["5227829"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5227829"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province, China","award":["2022J02016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022J02016"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province, China","award":["XRC-23030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XRC-23030"]}]},{"name":"Talent Start-up Fund Project of Fuzhou University","award":["5227829"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5227829"]}]},{"name":"Talent Start-up Fund Project of Fuzhou University","award":["2022J02016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022J02016"]}]},{"name":"Talent Start-up Fund Project of Fuzhou University","award":["XRC-23030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XRC-23030"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The quality of underwater bridge piers significantly impacts bridge safety and long-term usability. To address limitations in conventional inspection methods, this paper presents a sonar-based technique for the three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction and visualization of underwater bridge piers. Advanced MS1000 scanning sonar is employed to detect and image bridge piers. Automated image preprocessing, including filtering, denoising, binarization, filling, and morphological operations, introduces an enhanced wavelet denoising method to accurately extract the foundation contour coordinates of bridge piers from sonar images. Using these coordinates, along with undamaged pier dimensions and sonar distances, a model-driven approach for a 3D pier reconstruction algorithm is developed. This algorithm leverages multiple sonar data points to reconstruct damaged piers through multiplication. The Visualization Toolkit (VTK) and surface contour methodology are utilized for 3D visualization, enabling interactive manipulation for enhanced observation and analysis. Experimental results indicate a relative error of 13.56% for the hole volume and 10.65% for the spalling volume, demonstrating accurate replication of bridge pier defect volumes by the reconstructed models. Experimental validation confirms the method\u2019s accuracy and effectiveness in reconstructing underwater bridge piers in three dimensions, providing robust support for safety assessments and contributing significantly to bridge stability and long-term safety assurance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24144732","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,22]],"date-time":"2024-07-22T14:45:53Z","timestamp":1721659553000},"page":"4732","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Three-Dimensional Reconstruction and Visualization of Underwater Bridge Piers Using Sonar Imaging"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2244-0440","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianbin","family":"Luo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2149-9296","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shaofei","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yamian","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Quanzhou University of Information Engineering, Quanzhou 362008, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Changqin","family":"Lai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2022.104706","article-title":"Visual measurement method for three-dimensional shape of underwater bridge piers considering multirefraction correction","volume":"146","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kondo, H., Kobayashi, S., Tashiro, T., Saigo, N., Hiraike, T., and Kuroki, K. (2023, January 6\u20139). Development of a hybrid underwater vehicle for visual inspection of bridge piers. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE Underwater Technology (UT), Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/UT49729.2023.10103382"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26194","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.491860","article-title":"Impact of blur on 3D laser imaging: Monte-Carlo modelling for underwater applications","volume":"31","author":"Walcarius","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, S., Zeng, Y., Lai, C., Jiang, S., Wu, S., and Ma, S. (2023). Rapid three-dimensional reconstruction of underwater defective pile based on two-dimensional images obtained using mechanically scanned imaging sonar. Struct. Control Health Monit., 3647434.","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/3647434"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"90","article-title":"Deep learning and intelligent detection of apparent defects on underwater foundations of bridges with sonar imaging","volume":"54","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"China Civ. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, C., Kim, Y., Lee, H., Choi, S., and Jung, H. (2018). Development of a 2 MHz Sonar Sensor for Inspection of Bridge Substructures. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041222"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, K., Cui, W., and Chen, C. (2021). Review of Underwater Sensing Technologies and Applications. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21237849"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Chen, J., Gong, Z., Li, H., and Xie, S. (2011, January 15\u201317). A detection method based on sonar image for underwater pipeline tracker. Proceedings of the 2011 Second International Conference on Mechanic Automation and Control Engineering, IEEE, Inner Mongolia, China."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3917","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4988849","article-title":"Underwater pipeline leakage detection via multibeam sonar imagery","volume":"141","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.1986.1145209","article-title":"Measurement of seabed topography by multibeam sonar using CFFT","volume":"11","author":"Okino","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, X., Zhao, J., and Zhang, H. (2019). Obtaining high-resolution seabed topography and surface details by co-registration of side-scan sonar and multibeam echo sounder images. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11121496"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/S0963-8695(01)00031-7","article-title":"The monitoring of bridges for scour by sonar and sedimetri","volume":"35","author":"Mele","year":"2002","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.05.493","article-title":"Monitoring of scour around bridge piers and abutments","volume":"14","author":"Topczewski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"35","article-title":"High-resolution sonars set to revolutionise bridge scour inspections","volume":"168","author":"Clubley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.-Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Hunt, B.E. (2005, January 17\u201320). Scour monitoring programs for bridge health. Proceedings of the 6th International Bridge Engineering Conference: Reliability, Security, and Sustainability in Bridge Engineering, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000565","article-title":"Comparison of image-based and time-of-flight-based technologies for three-dimensional reconstruction of infrastructure","volume":"139","author":"Dai","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Constr. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, Y., Dong, Y., Wang, D., Chen, A., and Ye, Z. (2019). Three-dimensional reconstruction of structural surface model of heritage bridges using UAV-based photogrammetric point clouds. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11101204"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1007\/s00276-019-02248-1","article-title":"Application of three-dimensional reconstruction and printing as an elective course for undergraduate medical students: An exploratory trial","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surg. Radiol. Anat."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1007\/s11806-009-0195-z","article-title":"Research and practice in three-dimensional city modeling","volume":"12","author":"Zhu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geo-Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Z., Bai, X., Yu, Z., Chen, Z., Feng, N., Ai, Y., Song, S., and Xue, L. (2023). A novel three-dimensional reconstruction technology for the defect inspection of tubing and casing. Processes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr11072168"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13417","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3065374","article-title":"Three-dimensional reconstruction of dilute bubbly flow field with light-field images based on deep learning method","volume":"21","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Davis, A., and Lugsdin, A. (2005, January 17\u201323). High-speed underwater inspection for port and harbour security using Coda Echoscope 3D sonar. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2005 MTS\/IEEE, IEEE, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Li, P. (2016). Research on Image Matching Method for the Side-Scan Sonar Image. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Harbin Engineering University]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"8","article-title":"Enhancement algorithm of side-scan sonar image in curvelet transform domain","volume":"24","author":"Sheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrogr. Surv. Chart."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"83","article-title":"Crack detection method of concrete dams based on computer vision","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. Technol. Water Resour."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/14\/4732\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:20:38Z","timestamp":1760109638000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/14\/4732"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,21]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s24144732"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24144732","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,21]]}}}