{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T06:46:23Z","timestamp":1776753983497,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]],"date-time":"2024-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61372019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61372019"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62301339"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62301339"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["LJKMZ20220478"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LJKMZ20220478"]}]},{"name":"basic scientific research project by the Liaoning Provincial Department of Education","award":["61372019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61372019"]}]},{"name":"basic scientific research project by the Liaoning Provincial Department of Education","award":["62301339"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62301339"]}]},{"name":"basic scientific research project by the Liaoning Provincial Department of Education","award":["LJKMZ20220478"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LJKMZ20220478"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In order to achieve the non-destructive testing and quality evaluation of stainless-steel resistance spot welding (RSW) joints, a portable ultrasonic spiral C-scan testing instrument was developed based on the principle of ultrasonic pulse reflection. A mathematical model for the quality evaluation of RSW joints was established, and the centroid of the ultrasonic C-scan image in the nugget zone of the RSW was determined based on the principle of static moment. The longest and shortest axes passing through the centroid in the image were extracted, and the ratio of the longest axis to the shortest axis (RLS) factor and the average of axis (AOA) factor were calculated, respectively, to evaluate the quality of the joint. To study the effectiveness of the detection results, tensile tests, and stereo analysis were conducted on the solder joints after sampling. The results indicate that this detection method can realize online detection and significantly improve the detection efficiency; the detection value of internal defect size is close to the true value with an error of 0.1 mm; the combination of RLS and AOA factors can be used to evaluate the mechanical properties of RSW joints. This technology can be used to solve the NDT, evaluate problems of RSW joints, and realize engineering applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24154771","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]],"date-time":"2024-07-23T14:26:50Z","timestamp":1721744810000},"page":"4771","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation of Stainless-Steel Resistance Spot Welding Based on Spiral C-Scan Technique"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Liang","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China"},{"name":"Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rongyan","family":"Chuai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guixi","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingming","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kunlin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Shenyang 110016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-017-0517-5","article-title":"Experimental studies in weld nugget strength of resistance spot-welded 316L austenitic stainless steel sheet","volume":"93","author":"Jagadeesha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijimpeng.2023.104838","article-title":"Competing fracture modes in Al-steel resistance spot welded structures: Experimental evaluation and numerical prediction","volume":"185","author":"Qian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Impact Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-2695.2010.01489.x","article-title":"Resistance spot weldability and high cycle fatigue behaviour of martensitic (M190) steel sheet","volume":"34","author":"Pal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathiszik, C., Zschetzsche, E., Reinke, A., Koal, J., Zschetzsche, J., and F\u00fcssel, U.J.C. (2022). Magnetic characterization of the nugget microstructure at resistance spot welding. Crystals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst12111512"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.14311\/AP.2019.59.0238","article-title":"Non-destructive inspection by infrared thermography of resistance spot welds used in automotive industry","volume":"59","author":"Zavadil","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Polytech."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2012.02.005","article-title":"Progress in NDT of resistance spot welding of aluminium using ultrasonic C-scan","volume":"48","author":"Thornton","year":"2012","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mezher, M.T., Pereira, A., Trzepieci\u0144ski, T., and Acevedo, J. (2024). Artificial Neural Networks and Experimental Analysis of the Resistance Spot Welding Parameters Effect on the Welded Joint Quality of AISI 304. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17092167"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.corsci.2010.03.013","article-title":"Artificial neural networks for pitting potential prediction of resistance spot welding joints of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel","volume":"52","author":"Martin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Corros. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2021.03.012","article-title":"Acoustic simulation of ultrasonic testing and neural network used for diameter prediction of three-sheet spot welded joints","volume":"64","author":"Ghafarallahi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2017.01.028","article-title":"A comparison of two types of neural network for weld quality prediction in small scale resistance spot welding","volume":"93","author":"Wan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015006","DOI":"10.1088\/2631-8695\/acb130","article-title":"Real-time monitoring system for resistance spot welding quality","volume":"5","author":"Wen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eng. Res. Express"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"234","article-title":"Flexible differential pick-up Koch fractal eddy current sensor for internal crack detection","volume":"44","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chin. J. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.107859","article-title":"ECT in composite materials using double excitation coils and resonant excitation sensing circuits","volume":"161","author":"Pasadas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"236","article-title":"Assessment of nugget diameter of resistance spot welds using pulse eddy current thermography","volume":"Volume 10661","author":"Taram","year":"2018","journal-title":"Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XL"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D63","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.000D63","article-title":"Nondestructive testing of resistance spot welds using eddy current thermography","volume":"57","author":"Taram","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2581","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-016-9588-y","article-title":"Defect intelligent identification in resistance spot welding ultrasonic detection based on wavelet packet and neural network","volume":"90","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-017-0665-7","article-title":"Simulation analysis of ultrasonic detection for resistance spot welding based on COMSOL Multiphysics","volume":"93","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"89","article-title":"Research on phased array theory for non-destructive testing of welds","volume":"46","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Weld. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"31","article-title":"Phased array ultrasonic testing method of nugget diameter for resistance spot welding","volume":"44","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"559","article-title":"Synthetic Aperture Imaging Technology for Ultrasonic Spiral Scanning Detection of Metal Bars","volume":"60","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Met. Sin."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, P., Xu, C., and Xiao, D. (2016). Robotic Ultrasonic Testing Technology for Aero-Engine Blades. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23073729"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2005). Recommended Practices for Automotive Weld Quality Resistance SpotWelding (Standard No. AWS D8.7M-2005)."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2007). Railwayapplications-Weldingofrailwayvehiclesandcomponents-Part3Design Requirement (Standard No. EN15085-3-2007)."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3241","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-021-07875-w","article-title":"A novel method to eliminate the corona bond effect in detecting resistance spot welding joints based on ultrasonic vortex C-Scan technique","volume":"117","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(1999). Specimen Dimensions and Procedure for Shear Testing Resistance Spot and Embossed Projection Welded Joints (Standard No. JIS Z3136-1999)."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Yang, K., Wang, X., Huang, H., and Chen, J. (2022). Quality prediction and parameter optimisation of resistance spot welding using machine learning. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12199625"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/15\/4771\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:21:39Z","timestamp":1760109699000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/15\/4771"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s24154771"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24154771","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]}}}