{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T21:30:36Z","timestamp":1774474236038,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]],"date-time":"2024-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Research and Education (MIUR)","award":["SIN_00031\u2014CUP B69G14000180008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SIN_00031\u2014CUP B69G14000180008"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the global context, advancements in technology and science have rendered virtual, augmented, and mixed-reality technologies capable of transforming clinical care and medical environments by offering enhanced features and improved healthcare services. This paper aims to present a mixed reality-based system to control a robotic wheelchair for people with limited mobility. The test group comprised 11 healthy subjects (six male, five female, mean age 35.2 \u00b1 11.7 years). A novel platform that integrates a smart wheelchair and an eye-tracking-enabled head-mounted display was proposed to reduce the cognitive requirements needed for wheelchair movement and control. The approach\u2019s effectiveness was demonstrated by evaluating our system in realistic scenarios. The demonstration of the proposed AR head-mounted display user interface for controlling a smart wheelchair and the results provided in this paper could highlight the potential of the HoloLens 2-based innovative solutions and bring focus to emerging research topics, such as remote control, cognitive rehabilitation, the implementation of patient autonomy with severe disabilities, and telemedicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24154774","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,24]],"date-time":"2024-07-24T10:46:20Z","timestamp":1721817980000},"page":"4774","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["An Innovative Device Based on Human-Machine Interface (HMI) for Powered Wheelchair Control for Neurodegenerative Disease: A Proof-of-Concept"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Arrigo","family":"Palumbo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7313-8882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Ielpo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2123-8221","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Calabrese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Tecnico Industriale Statale \u201cEnrico Fermi\u201d, Via Piero Della Francesca, 87012 Castrovillari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3468-8937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Remo","family":"Garropoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Garropoli Computer Science Consulting, 87100 Cosenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vera","family":"Gramigna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2828-2455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Ammendolia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University Hospital \u201cMater Domini\u201d, University of Catanzaro Magna Graecia, Via Campanella, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"},{"name":"Research Center on Musculoskeletal Health, MusculoSkeletalHealth@UMG, University of Catanzaro \u201cMagna Graecia\u201d, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5568-7909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Marotta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center on Musculoskeletal Health, MusculoSkeletalHealth@UMG, University of Catanzaro \u201cMagna Graecia\u201d, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2024, July 01). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/activities\/global-report-on-health-equity-for-persons-with-disabilities."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, E.Y. (2016). Wheelchair Navigation System for Disabled and Elderly People. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16111806"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1080\/03091902.2020.1853838","article-title":"Wheelchair control for disabled patients using EMG\/EOG based human machine interface: A review","volume":"45","author":"Kaur","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palumbo, A., Ielpo, N., and Calabrese, B. (2022). An fpga-embedded brain-computer interface system to support individual autonomy in locked-in individuals. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22010318"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palumbo, A., Gramigna, V., Calabrese, B., and Ielpo, N. (2021). Motor-Imagery EEG-Based BCIs in Wheelchair Movement and Control: A Systematic Literature Review. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.36227\/techrxiv.14916537.v1"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1080\/10400435.2008.10131933","article-title":"Trends and Issues in Wheelchair Technologies","volume":"21","author":"Cooper","year":"2008","journal-title":"Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdallah, S.B., Ajmi, F., Othman, S.B., Vermandel, S., and Hammadi, S. (2019, January 12\u201314). Augmented Reality for Real-time Navigation Assistance to Wheelchair Users with Obstacles\u2019 Management. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Science, Faro, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-22750-0_47"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zolotas, M., Elsdon, J., and Demiris, Y. (2018, January 1\u20135). Head-Mounted Augmented Reality for Explainable Robotic Wheelchair Assistance. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2018.8594002"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zolotas, M., and Demiris, Y. (2019, January 3\u20138). Towards explainable shared control using augmented reality. Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Macau, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS40897.2019.8968117"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2011.2158608","article-title":"Quantitative and Comparative Assessment of Learning in a Tongue-Operated Computer Input Device","volume":"15","author":"Yousefi","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s11370-014-0149-7","article-title":"Multi-modal control framework for a semi-autonomous wheelchair using modular sensor designs","volume":"7","author":"Sinyukov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Intell. Serv. Robot."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rathore, D.K., Srivastava, P., Pandey, S., and Jaiswal, S. (2014, January 1\u20132). A novel multipurpose smart wheelchair. Proceedings of the IEEE Students\u2019 Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Science, Bhopal, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCEECS.2014.6804529"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yayan, U., Akar, B., Inan, F., and Yazici, A. (2014, January 24\u201325). Development of indoor navigation software for intelligent wheelchair. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Innovations in Intelligent Systems and Applications, Alberobello, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/INISTA.2014.6873639"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.2013.2287792","article-title":"Driving assistance by deictic control for a smart wheelchair: The assessment issue","volume":"44","author":"Leishman","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Hum. Mach. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, S., and Argall, B. (2014, January 14\u201318). Automated perception of safe docking locations with alignment information for assistive. Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2014.6943272"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2017.2706727","article-title":"A comprehensive review of smart wheelchairs: Past, present, and future","volume":"47","author":"Leaman","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Hum. Mach. Syst."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7151","DOI":"10.15680\/IJIRCCE.2014.0212003","article-title":"Voice and Gesture Based Wheelchair Using AVR and Android","volume":"2","author":"Pundlik","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Innov. Res. Comput. Commun. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1089\/cpb.2006.9.591","article-title":"Head-Mounted Displays for Clinical Virtual Reality Applications: Pitfalls in Understanding User Behavior while Using Technology","volume":"9","author":"Simone","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cyberpsychology Behav."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7405205060p1","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.2020.041442","article-title":"Applications of Head-Mounted Displays for Virtual Reality in Adult Physical Rehabilitation: A Scoping Review","volume":"74","author":"Saldana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marek, K., Zubrycki, I., and Miller, E. (2022). Immersion Therapy with Head-Mounted Display for Rehabilitation of the Upper Limb after Stroke\u2014Review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22249962"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demeco, A., Zola, L., Frizziero, A., Martini, C., Palumbo, A., Foresti, R., Buccino, G., and Costantino, C. (2023). Immersive Virtual Reality in Post-Stroke Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23031712"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-017-9676-0","article-title":"A review of the use of virtual reality head-mounted displays in education and training","volume":"23","author":"Jensen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1177\/016264341102600303","article-title":"Learning to Drive a Wheelchair in Virtual Reality","volume":"26","author":"Inman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Spec. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Majdolashrafi, M., Ahmadabadi, M.N., and Ghazavi, A. (2002, January 6\u20139). A desktop virtual environment to train motorized wheelchair driving. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Yasmine Hammamet, Tunisia."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Rodrigo, C.Q., and Demiris, Y. (2018, January 5). Augmented reality control of smart wheelchair using eye-gaze\u2013enabled selection of affordances. Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Madrid, Spain."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palumbo, A. (2022). Microsoft HoloLens 2 in Medical and Healthcare Context: State of the Art and Future Prospects. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207709"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koop, M.M., Rosenfeldt, A.B., Owen, K., Penko, A.L., Streicher, M.C., Albright, A., and Alberts, J.L. (2022). The Microsoft HoloLens 2 Provides Accurate Measures of Gait, Turning, and Functional Mobility in Healthy Adults. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22052009"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/15\/4774\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:21:50Z","timestamp":1760109710000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/15\/4774"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s24154774"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24154774","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]}}}