{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T23:26:35Z","timestamp":1775863595353,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,6]],"date-time":"2024-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722902400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science and Technology Council","award":["NSTC 113-2221-E-194-011-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSTC 113-2221-E-194-011-MY3"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study introduces a novel method for detecting and measuring transparent glass sheets using hyperspectral imaging (HSI). The main goal of this study is to create a conversion technique that can accurately display spectral information from collected images, particularly in the visible light spectrum (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) areas. This technique enables the capture of relevant spectral data when used with images provided by industrial cameras. The next step in this investigation is using principal component analysis to examine the obtained hyperspectral images derived from different treated glass samples. This analytical procedure standardizes the magnitude of light wavelengths that are inherent in the HSI images. The simulated spectral profiles are obtained using the generalized inverse matrix technique on the normalized HSI images. These profiles are then matched with spectroscopic data obtained from microscopic imaging, resulting in the observation of distinct dispersion patterns. The novel use of images coloring methods effectively displays the thickness of the glass processing sheet in a visually noticeable way. Based on empirical research, changes in the thickness of the glass coating in the NIR-HSI range cause significant changes in the transmission of infrared light at different wavelengths within the NIR spectrum. This phenomenon serves as the foundation for the study of film thickness. The root mean square error inside the NIR area is impressively low, calculated to be just 0.02. This highlights the high level of accuracy achieved by the technique stated above. Potential areas of investigation that arise from this study are incorporating the proposed approach into the design of a real-time, wide-scale automated optical inspection system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24165094","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,6]],"date-time":"2024-08-06T15:24:16Z","timestamp":1722957856000},"page":"5094","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Large-Area Film Thickness Identification of Transparent Glass by Hyperspectral Imaging"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Shuan-Yu","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taichung 40601, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Riya","family":"Karmakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi 62102, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu-Yang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi 62102, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wei-Chin","family":"Hung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, R. O. C. Military Academy, Kaohsiung 83020, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7741-3722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arvind","family":"Mukundan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi 62102, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4107-2062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hsiang-Chen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi 62102, Taiwan"},{"name":"Hitspectra Intelligent Technology Co., Ltd., Kaohsiung 80661, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Garner, S.M., Lewis, S.C., and Chowdhury, D.Q. (2017, January 4\u20137). Flexible glass and its application for electronic devices. Proceedings of the 2017 24th International Workshop on Active-Matrix Flatpanel Displays and Devices (AM-FPD), Kyoto, Japan."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.08.185","article-title":"The role of glass waste in the production of ceramic-based products and other applications: A review","volume":"167","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maximov, M., Maximov, O.-C., Craciun, L., Ficai, D., Ficai, A., and Andronescu, E. (2021). Bioactive glass\u2014An extensive study of the preparation and coating methods. Coatings, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings11111386"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2017.02.049","article-title":"A study on characterization of nano-porous NiO thin film to improve electrical and optical properties for application to automotive glass","volume":"641","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Thin Solid Film."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4267","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.6b01054","article-title":"Accelerating the design of functional glasses through modeling","volume":"28","author":"Mauro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2020.109043","article-title":"Fabrication, microstructure and wear properties of novel Fe-Mo-Cr-CB metallic glass coating layers manufactured by various thermal spray processes","volume":"195","author":"Ham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C.-L. (2020). A study of the optical properties and fabrication of coatings made of three-dimensional photonic glass. Coatings, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings10080781"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2022.08.310","article-title":"Anti-oxidation of emissing agents in TaSi2\u2013MoSi2-borosilicate glass high emissivity coating","volume":"48","author":"Tao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2022.112149","article-title":"Fe-based metallic glass composite coatings by HVOF spraying: Influence of Mo on phase evolution, wear and corrosion resistance","volume":"191","author":"Nayak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1002\/polb.24858","article-title":"PVDF\/PMMA dielectric films with notably decreased dielectric loss and enhanced high-temperature tolerance","volume":"57","author":"Nie","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci. Part B Polym. Phys."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2005.10.019","article-title":"EPR investigation of the gamma radiation response of different types of glasses","volume":"63","author":"Gancheva","year":"2006","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1080\/0371750X.2016.1278402","article-title":"Effect of different types of glasses as fluxing agent on the sintering temperature of bricks","volume":"76","author":"Islam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trans. Indian Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2015.11.047","article-title":"High performance VO2 thin films growth by DC magnetron sputtering at low temperature for smart energy efficient window application","volume":"659","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"209","article-title":"The latest developments in glass science and technology","volume":"4","author":"Karasu","year":"2017","journal-title":"El-Cezeri"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2013.2257715","article-title":"A transparent optical sensor for moisture detection integrated in a pq-pmma medium","volume":"25","author":"Matusevich","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1002\/cnma.202100079","article-title":"Chemical vapor deposition synthesis of graphene over sapphire substrates","volume":"7","author":"Shan","year":"2021","journal-title":"ChemNanoMat"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrysgro.2011.12.038","article-title":"Modern trends in crystal growth and new applications of sapphire","volume":"360","author":"Akselrod","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hobbs, D.S., MacLeod, B.D., and Riccobono, J.R. (2007, January 11\u201312). Update on the development of high performance anti-reflecting surface relief micro-structures. Proceedings of the Window and Dome Technologies and Materials X, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.720672"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vacuum.2009.12.014","article-title":"Magnetron sputtering\u2013Milestones of 30 years","volume":"84","author":"Szyszka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vacuum"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-6090(99)00148-0","article-title":"State of the art in large area vacuum coatings on glass","volume":"351","author":"Suzuki","year":"1999","journal-title":"Thin Solid Film."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3093(97)00198-1","article-title":"Chemical vapor deposition of coatings on glass","volume":"218","author":"Gordon","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Non-Cryst. Solids"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ponja, S.D., Sathasivam, S., Parkin, I.P., and Carmalt, C.J. (2020). Highly conductive and transparent gallium doped zinc oxide thin films via chemical vapor deposition. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-57532-7"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-396X(200209)193:1<139::AID-PSSA139>3.0.CO;2-D","article-title":"Effect of vacuum annealing on the properties of transparent conductive AZO thin films prepared by dc magnetron sputtering","volume":"193","author":"Fang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi (A)"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3894(99)00179-X","article-title":"Photocatalytic TiO2 deposition by chemical vapor deposition","volume":"73","author":"Byun","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2023.141473","article-title":"Flexible, stable, and self-powered photodetectors embedded with chemical vapor deposited lead-free bismuth mixed halide perovskite films","volume":"458","author":"Vuong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s10971-013-3002-0","article-title":"Hybrid sol\u2013gel based coatings for the protection of historical window glass","volume":"66","author":"Lottici","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Sol-Gel Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Groot, P.J., de Lega, X.C., and Fay, M.F. (2008, January 13\u201314). Transparent film profiling and analysis by interference microscopy. Proceedings of the Interferometry XIV: Applications, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.794936"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1038\/s41524-020-00380-w","article-title":"Quantifying defects in thin films using machine vision","volume":"6","author":"Taherimakhsousi","year":"2020","journal-title":"NPJ Comput. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2022.139568","article-title":"Optical, structural and composition properties of silicon nitride films deposited by reactive radio-frequency sputtering, low pressure and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition","volume":"763","author":"Beliaev","year":"2022","journal-title":"Thin Solid Film."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mukundan, A., Huang, C.-C., Men, T.-C., Lin, F.-C., and Wang, H.-C. (2022). Air Pollution Detection Using a Novel Snap-Shot Hyperspectral Imaging Technique. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22166231"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H.-Y., Hsiao, Y.-P., Mukundan, A., Tsao, Y.-M., Chang, W.-Y., and Wang, H.-C. (2023). Classification of Skin Cancer Using Novel Hyperspectral Imaging Engineering via YOLOv5. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12031134"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, S.-Y., Mukundan, A., Tsao, Y.-M., Kim, Y., Lin, F.-C., and Wang, H.-C. (2022). Recent Advances in Counterfeit Art, Document, Photo, Hologram, and Currency Detection Using Hyperspectral Imaging. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197308"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23956","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.522932","article-title":"Water pollution classification and detection by hyperspectral imaging","volume":"32","author":"Leung","year":"2024","journal-title":"Optics Express"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mukundan, A., Tsao, Y.-M., Lin, F.-C., and Wang, H.-C. (2022). Portable and low-cost hologram verification module using a snapshot-based hyperspectral imaging algorithm. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-22424-5"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10186","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.20.010186","article-title":"Optimal lighting of RGB LEDs for oral cavity detection","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Optics Express"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/16\/5094\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:30:59Z","timestamp":1760110259000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/16\/5094"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,6]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s24165094"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24165094","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,6]]}}}