{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T11:07:42Z","timestamp":1773918462188,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]],"date-time":"2024-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1723593600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People\u2019s Republic of China","award":["2022YFE0111400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFE0111400"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People\u2019s Republic of China","award":["2023YQ027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YQ027"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People\u2019s Republic of China","award":["62275172"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275172"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of the People\u2019s Republic of China","award":["ZDSYS20220606100405013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDSYS20220606100405013"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen University","award":["2022YFE0111400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFE0111400"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen University","award":["2023YQ027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YQ027"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen University","award":["62275172"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275172"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen University","award":["ZDSYS20220606100405013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDSYS20220606100405013"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2022YFE0111400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFE0111400"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2023YQ027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YQ027"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62275172"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275172"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["ZDSYS20220606100405013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDSYS20220606100405013"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["2022YFE0111400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFE0111400"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["2023YQ027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YQ027"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["62275172"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62275172"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["ZDSYS20220606100405013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDSYS20220606100405013"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>For distributed fiber-optic sensors, slowly varying vibration signals down to 5 mHz are difficult to measure due to low signal-to-noise ratios. We propose and demonstrate a forward transmission-based distributed sensing system, combined with a polarization-generated carrier for detection bandwidth reduction, and cross-correlation for vibration positioning. By applying a higher-frequency carrier signal using a fast polarization controller, the initial phase of the known carrier frequency is monitored and analyzed to demodulate the vibration signal. Only the polarization carrier needs to be analyzed, not the arbitrary-frequency signal, which can lead to hardware issues (reduced detection bandwidth and less noise). The difference in arrival time between the two detection ends obtained through cross-correlation can determine the vibration position. Our experimental results demonstrate a sensitivity of 0.63 mrad\/\u03bc\u03b5 and a limit of detection (LoD) of 355.6 p\u03b5\/Hz1\/2 at 60 Hz. A lock-in amplifier can be used on the fixed carrier to achieve a minimal LoD. The sensing distance can reach 131.5 km and the positioning accuracy is 725 m (root-mean-square error) while the spatial resolution is 105 m. The tested vibration frequency range is between 0.005 Hz and 160 Hz. A low frequency of 5 mHz for forward transmission-based distributed sensing is highly attractive for seismic monitoring applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24165257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]],"date-time":"2024-08-14T09:20:51Z","timestamp":1723627251000},"page":"5257","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Distributed Vibration Sensing Based on a Forward Transmission Polarization-Generated Carrier"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Ming","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education\/Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1562-2180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xing","family":"Rao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education\/Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education\/Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuhang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education\/Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuqing","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangsu Ocean Technology and Equipment Innovation Center, Suzhou 215000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rendong","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangsu Ocean Technology and Equipment Innovation Center, Suzhou 215000, China"},{"name":"Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2469-9093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George Y.","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education\/Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7730-8906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiping","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education\/Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Photonic Devices and Sensing Systems for Internet of Things, Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fibre Sensors, State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24820","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.399640","article-title":"Distributed fiber-optic sensor for location based on polarization-stabilized dual-Mach-Zehnder interferometer","volume":"28","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4825","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.500587","article-title":"Long-range distributed vibration sensing using phase-sensitive forward optical transmission","volume":"48","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2569","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.422046","article-title":"High sensitivity and large measurable range distributed acoustic sensing with Rayleigh-enhanced fiber","volume":"46","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24020","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.456172","article-title":"Epicenter localization using forward-transmission laser interferometry","volume":"30","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abe6648","article-title":"Optical polarization\u2013based seismic and water wave sensing on transoceanic cables","volume":"371","author":"Zhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aat4458","article-title":"Ultrastable laser interferometry for earthquake detection with terrestrial and submarine cables","volume":"361","author":"Marra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lalam, N., Westbrook, P., Naeem, K., Lu, P., Ohodnicki, P., Diemler, N., Buric, M.P., and Wright, R. (2023). Pilot-scale testing of natural gas pipeline monitoring based on phase-OTDR and enhanced scatter optical fiber cable. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-41338-4"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13138","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.20.013138","article-title":"Distributed vibration sensing with time-resolved optical frequency-domain reflectometry","volume":"20","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Z., Feng, T., Li, F., and Yao, X.S. (2023). Optical Frequency-Domain Reflectometry Based Distributed Temperature Sensing Using Rayleigh Backscattering Enhanced Fiber. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23125748"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2518","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2023.3235432","article-title":"Polarization Independent Phase-OFDR in Rayleigh-Based Distributed Sensing","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, D., Liu, Q., Fan, X., and He, Z. (2017, January 24\u201328). Distributed fiber optic vibration sensor with enhanced response bandwidth and high signal-to-noise ratio. Proceedings of the SPIE 10323, 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors, Jeju, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2265266"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3685","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.425843","article-title":"Enabling long range distributed vibration sensing using multicore fiber interferometers","volume":"46","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5767","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.504740","article-title":"Super-long-range distributed vibration sensor based on the polarimetric forward-transmission of light","volume":"48","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2241","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2020.3044676","article-title":"Forward transmission based ultra-long distributed vibration sensing with wide frequency response","volume":"39","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6800907","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2021.3098634","article-title":"Unidirectional ultra-long distributed optical fiber sensor","volume":"13","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2016.08.043","article-title":"Tutorial on estimating the limit of detection using LC-MS analysis, part I: Theoretical review","volume":"942","author":"Evard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rao, X., Dai, S., Chen, M., Zhu, R., Lu, D., Chen, G.Y., and Wang, Y. (2024). Multi-point vibration positioning method for long-distance forward transmission distributed vibration sensing. Opt. Express, in press.","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.530885"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/16\/5257\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:36:36Z","timestamp":1760110596000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/16\/5257"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]]},"references-count":17,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s24165257"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24165257","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]]}}}