{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T14:39:48Z","timestamp":1778251188633,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,21]],"date-time":"2024-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724198400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003819","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024AFB440"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024AFB440"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003819","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003819","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["232300420087"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["232300420087"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003819","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006407","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Henan Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024AFB440"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024AFB440"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006407","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Henan Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["232300420087"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["232300420087"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bolt loosening can significantly impact the accuracy, stability, and safety of equipment. The detection of bolt loosening in a timely manner is crucial for ensuring the safety, reliability, performance, and service life of equipment, structures, and systems. Various methods exist for detecting bolt loosening, such as strain gauges and ultrasonic waves. However, these technologies have some limitations that impede their widespread application. In this paper, for the high-pressure pipe manifolds that may experience leakage accidents due to the loosening of bolts, an early bolt loosening detection method based on digital image correlation is proposed. Initially, a model is established through tensile tests to relate the average strain on the side of the bolt head to the axial force. Subsequently, an industrial camera captures images of bolts with random speckles under operational conditions. Using digital image correlation technology, the average strain in a specific region on the side of the bolt head is calculated. By integrating the average strain into the established relationship model between the average strain and axial force, the axial force of the bolt under operational conditions can be predicted, enabling the early assessment of bolt loosening. The findings show that the average strain on the side of the bolt head increases proportionally with the axial force, indicating a strong linear relationship. This method enables accurate prediction of the bolt\u2019s axial force, offering a new approach for identifying the early loosening of bolts in high-pressure manifolds and monitoring structural health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24165397","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,23]],"date-time":"2024-08-23T12:58:07Z","timestamp":1724417887000},"page":"5397","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Early Bolt Loosening Detection Method Based on Digital Image Correlation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Yinyin","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yusen","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kang","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huiyuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College Vehicle and Traffic Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Jiang, Y., Huang, L., and Zeng, L. (2023). Real-time monitoring method of bolt loosening with clearance evolution law of joint surface. Mech. Sci. Technol., 34.","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/acd4d9"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921718806141","article-title":"Structural health monitoring of the loosening in a multi-bolt structure using linear and modulated nonlinear ultrasound acoustic moments approach","volume":"17","author":"Fierro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2023.102838","article-title":"Noncontact measurement of bolt axial force in tightening processes using scattered laser ultrasonic waves","volume":"137","author":"Kitazawa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ndt E Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012049","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/2474\/1\/012049","article-title":"Axial force detection based on electromagnetic ultrasonic of power bolt","volume":"2474","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2021.106275","article-title":"Cold expansion of rail-end-bolt holes: Finite element predictions and experimental validation by DIC and strain gauges","volume":"149","author":"Pucillo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105954","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2021.105954","article-title":"A three-stage criterion to reveal the bolt self-loosening mechanism under random vibration by strain detection","volume":"133","author":"Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095009","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ace813","article-title":"Research on bolt looseness monitoring based on electromechanical impedance transmissibility technology","volume":"32","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095022","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ac80e1","article-title":"Bolt looseness monitoring based on damping measurement by using a quantitative electro-mechanical impedance method","volume":"31","author":"Qiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2021.107955","article-title":"A novel percussion-based method for multi-bolt looseness detection using one-dimensional memory augmented convolutional long short-term memory networks","volume":"161","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"255","article-title":"Detection of bolt loosening in C\u2013C composite thermal protection panels: II. Experimental verification","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871213","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/871213","article-title":"Review of bolted connection monitoring","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.106326","article-title":"3D vision-based bolt loosening assessment using photogrammetry, deep neural networks, and 3D point-cloud processing","volume":"70","author":"Pan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2020.111228","article-title":"Bolt loosening detection using impedance based non-destructive method and probabilistic neural network technique with minimal training data","volume":"226","author":"Na","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-021-00806-6","article-title":"DIC Challenge 2.0: Developing Images and Guidelines for Evaluating Accuracy and Resolution of 2D Analyses","volume":"62","author":"Reu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-013-9717-6","article-title":"Fast, Robust and Accurate Digital Image Correlation Calculation Without Redundant Computations","volume":"53","author":"Pan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2014.06.011","article-title":"Path-independent digital image correlation with high accuracy, speed and robustness","volume":"65","author":"Jiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, X.X., and Li, J. (2018). Image registration-based bolt loosening detection of steel joints. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041000"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2022.104517","article-title":"Detection of loosening angle for mark bolted joints with computer vision and geometric imaging","volume":"142","author":"Deng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"839","article-title":"Non-Destructive Detection of High-Strength Wind Turbine Bolt Looseness Using Digital Image Correlation","volume":"30","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Metrol. Meas. Syst."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2019.102844","article-title":"Quasi-autonomous bolt-loosening detection method using vision-based deep learning and image processing","volume":"105","author":"Huynh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Zou, M. (2007). Fracal Theory and Its Applications to Porous Media, Rough Surface and Thermal Contact Conductance, Huazhong University of Science and Technology."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"137","article-title":"Evaluation method for leakage of cylindrical sealing surfaces with internal meshing and contractual curvature","volume":"48","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. Hydraul. Pneum."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02325092","article-title":"Applications of digital-image-correlation techniques to experimental mechanics","volume":"25","author":"Chu","year":"1985","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1117\/12.7972925","article-title":"Digital imaging techniques in experimental stress analysis","volume":"21","author":"Peters","year":"1982","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2018.03.011","article-title":"A digital image correlation analysis on a sheet AA6061-T6 bi-failure specimen to predict static failure","volume":"90","author":"Farahani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.108594","article-title":"Compressive failure analysis of seawater-mixed aluminate cement concrete based on digital image correlation technique","volume":"85","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2024.114262","article-title":"Internal crack detection based on thermal excitation enabled digital image correlation method","volume":"227","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.134925","article-title":"Investigations on tensile mechanical properties of rigid insulation tile materials at elevated temperatures based on digital image correlation algorithm","volume":"413","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020034","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)AS.1943-5525.0001147","article-title":"Bolt pretightening force measurement based on strain distribution of bolt head surface","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Aerosp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"082001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/aac55b","article-title":"Digital image correlation for surface deformation measurement: Historical developments, recent advances and future goals","volume":"29","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"687","article-title":"A J-ntegral measurement method based on digital image correlation","volume":"40","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mech. Strength."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1080\/00224065.2002.11980136","article-title":"Applied statistics for engineers and scientists","volume":"34","author":"Zimmer","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Qual. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Lei, D., Zhu, F., and Bai, P. (2016). Mechanical Testing and Analysis of Material and Structural Deformation and Failure Based on Digital Image Correlation, Hohai University Press."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Yang, Z. (2023). Research on High-Precision Structural Deformation Monitoring Method Based on Digital Image Correlation, Central South University."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, E.M.C., and Iadicola, M.A. (2018). Good Practices Guide for Digital Image Correlation, International Digital Image Correlation Society. Available online: https:\/\/idics.org\/guide\/DICGoodPracticesGuide_PrintVersion-V5h-181024.pdf.","DOI":"10.32720\/idics\/gpg.ed1"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.61.000001","article-title":"Lightness and retinex theory","volume":"61","author":"Land","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/16\/5397\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:40:16Z","timestamp":1760110816000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/16\/5397"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,21]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s24165397"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24165397","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,21]]}}}