{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T00:12:11Z","timestamp":1768522331552,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]],"date-time":"2024-08-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724889600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["52402444"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52402444"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2023CQBSHTB3133"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023CQBSHTB3133"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["KJQN202201345"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJQN202201345"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2024yc-cxfz30079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024yc-cxfz30079"]}]},{"name":"Special Funding for Postdoctoral Research Projects in Chongqing","award":["52402444"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52402444"]}]},{"name":"Special Funding for Postdoctoral Research Projects in Chongqing","award":["2023CQBSHTB3133"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023CQBSHTB3133"]}]},{"name":"Special Funding for Postdoctoral Research Projects in Chongqing","award":["KJQN202201345"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJQN202201345"]}]},{"name":"Special Funding for Postdoctoral Research Projects in Chongqing","award":["2024yc-cxfz30079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024yc-cxfz30079"]}]},{"name":"Science, Technology Research Project of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","award":["52402444"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52402444"]}]},{"name":"Science, Technology Research Project of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","award":["2023CQBSHTB3133"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023CQBSHTB3133"]}]},{"name":"Science, Technology Research Project of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","award":["KJQN202201345"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJQN202201345"]}]},{"name":"Science, Technology Research Project of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","award":["2024yc-cxfz30079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024yc-cxfz30079"]}]},{"name":"Technology Innovation and Application Development Project of Chongqing Yongchuan District Science and Technology Bureau","award":["52402444"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52402444"]}]},{"name":"Technology Innovation and Application Development Project of Chongqing Yongchuan District Science and Technology Bureau","award":["2023CQBSHTB3133"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023CQBSHTB3133"]}]},{"name":"Technology Innovation and Application Development Project of Chongqing Yongchuan District Science and Technology Bureau","award":["KJQN202201345"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJQN202201345"]}]},{"name":"Technology Innovation and Application Development Project of Chongqing Yongchuan District Science and Technology Bureau","award":["2024yc-cxfz30079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024yc-cxfz30079"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Assessing the olfactory preferences of consumers is an important aspect of fragrance product development and marketing. With the advancement of wearable device technologies, physiological signals hold great potential for evaluating olfactory preferences. However, there is currently a lack of relevant studies and specific explanatory procedures for preference assessment methods that are based on physiological signals. In response to this gap, a synchronous data acquisition system was established using the ErgoLAB multi-channel physiology instrument and olfactory experience tester. Thirty-three participants were recruited for the olfactory preference experiments, and three types of autonomic response data (skin conductance, respiration, and heart rate) were collected. The results of both individual and overall analyses indicated that olfactory preferences can lead to changes in skin conductance (SC), respiration (RESP), and heart rate (HR). The trends of change in both RESP and HR showed significant differences (with the HR being more easily distinguishable), while the SC did not exhibit significant differences across different olfactory perception preferences. Additionally, gender differences did not result in significant variations. Therefore, HR is more suitable for evaluating olfactory perception preferences, followed by RESP, while SC shows the least effect. Moreover, a logistic regression model with a high accuracy (84.1%) in predicting olfactory perception preferences was developed using the changes in the RESP and HR features. This study has significant implications for advancing the assessment of consumer olfactory preferences.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24175604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]],"date-time":"2024-08-29T08:01:47Z","timestamp":1724918507000},"page":"5604","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Autonomic Responses Associated with Olfactory Preferences of Fragrance Consumers: Skin Conductance, Respiration, and Heart Rate"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Bangbei","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Army Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China"},{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing Engineering, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing 402160, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mingxin","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing Engineering, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing 402160, China"},{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Sichuan University of Science & Engineering, Yibin 643000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yingzhang","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1714-9034","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gang","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhian","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Army Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yongfeng","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing Engineering, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing 402160, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laohakangvalvit, T., Sripian, P., Nakagawa, Y., Feng, C., Tazawa, T., Sakai, S., and Sugaya, M. (2023). Study on the psychological states of olfactory stimuli using electroencephalography and heart rate variability. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23084026"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.15728\/bbr.2014.11.3.6","article-title":"The contribution of neuromarketing to the study of consumer behavior","volume":"11","author":"Colaferro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Braz. Bus. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2023.104126","article-title":"Autonomic responses to pressure sensitivity of head, face and neck: Heart rate and skin conductance","volume":"114","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2022.111618","article-title":"Olfactory perception relates to food neophobia in adolescence","volume":"98","author":"Sorokowska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2023.104472","article-title":"People\u2019s olfactory perception potential mapping using a machine learning algorithm: A Spatio-temporal approach","volume":"93","author":"Farahani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2022.108704","article-title":"Olfactory perception of 5\u03b1-androst-16-en-3-one: Data obtained in the residents of central Russia","volume":"45","author":"Klyuchnikova","year":"2022","journal-title":"Data Brief"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2019.03.028","article-title":"The impact of acoustic fMRI-noise on olfactory sensitivity and perception","volume":"406","author":"Fjaeldstad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lesur, M.R., Stussi, Y., Bertrand, P., Delplanque, S., and Lenggenhager, B. (2023). Different armpits under my new nose: Olfactory sex but not gender affects implicit measures of embodiment. Biol. Psychol., 176.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2022.108477"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2019.11.718","article-title":"The effect of olfactory stimulation on neuronal activity in dreaming during nrem 2 stage of sleep and sensory perception during dreams","volume":"64","author":"Apnea","year":"2019","journal-title":"Abstr. Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2855","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2020-19026","article-title":"Characterization of the relationship between olfactory perception and the release of aroma compounds before and after simulated oral processing","volume":"104","author":"Mu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2022.103416","article-title":"Olfactory metacognition and memory in individuals with different subjective odor imagery abilities","volume":"105","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2020.112549","article-title":"First step of odorant detection in the olfactory epithelium and olfactory preferences differ according to the microbiota profile in mice","volume":"384","author":"Naudon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2008.06.002","article-title":"Olfactory cues are sufficient to elicit social approach behaviors but not social transmission of food preference in C57BL\/6J mice","volume":"193","author":"Ryan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2020.06.016","article-title":"From Synapse to Supper: A Food Preference Recipe with Olfactory Synaptic Ingredients","volume":"107","author":"Nakahara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2018.03.025","article-title":"Odor preference and olfactory memory are impaired in Olfaxin-deficient mice","volume":"1688","author":"Islam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2011.07.752","article-title":"Coordinated change of acting sensory neurons is important for olfactory preference change depending upon odor concentration","volume":"71","author":"Yoshida","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2004.05.008","article-title":"Sex-specific effects of gonadal steroids on conspecific odor preference in the rat","volume":"46","author":"Xiao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsp.2023.104278","article-title":"Emotion recognition from multiple physiological signals using intra-and inter-modality attention fusion network","volume":"144","author":"Gong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Digit. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alt\u0131ntop, \u00c7.G., Latifo\u011flu, F., and Ak\u0131n, A.K. (2022). Can patients in deep coma hear us? Examination of coma depth using physiological signals. Biomed. Signal Process. Control, 77.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2022.103756"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2023.106242","article-title":"Towards automated physical fatigue monitoring and prediction among construction workers using physiological signals: An on-site study","volume":"166","author":"Umer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2022.103937","article-title":"Continuous physiological signal measurement over 24-hour periods to assess the impact of work-related stress and workplace violence","volume":"108","author":"Shishavan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parreira, J.D., Chalumuri, Y.R., Mousavi, A.S., Modak, M., Zhou, Y., Sanchez-Perez, J.A., Gazi, A.H., Harrison, A.B., Inan, O.T., and Hahn, J.-O. (2023). A proof-of-concept investigation of multi-modal physiological signal responses to acute mental stress. Biomed. Signal Process. Control, 85.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2023.105001"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2023.103423","article-title":"A quick identification model for assessing human anxiety and thermal comfort based on physiological signals in a hot and humid working environment","volume":"94","author":"Jiao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hiroike, S., Doi, S., Wada, T., Kobayashi, E., Karaki, M., Mori, N., Kusaka, T., and Ito, S. (2009, January 9\u201311). Study of olfactory effect on individual driver under driving. Proceedings of the 2009 ICME International Conference on Complex Medical Engineering, Tempe, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCME.2009.4906634"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doi, S., Kamesawa, K., Wada, T., Kobayashi, E., Karaki, M., and Mori, N. (2010, January 13\u201315). Basic study on individual preference for scents and the arousal level for brain activity using MNIRS. Proceedings of the IEEE\/ICME International Conference on Complex Medical Engineering, Gold Coast, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCME.2010.5558859"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ohira, H., and Hirao, N. (2015). Analysis of skin conductance response during evaluation of preferences for cosmetic products. Front. Psychol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00103"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pichon, A.M., Coppin, G., Cayeux, I., Porcherot, C., Sander, D., and Delplanque, S. (2015). Sensitivity of physiological emotional measures to odors depends on the product and the pleasantness ranges used. Front. Psychol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.01821"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarid, O., and Zaccai, M. (2016). Changes in mood states are induced by smelling familiar and exotic fragrances. Front. Psychol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.01724"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miranda-Mellado, J., Serna, J., Arbelaez-Garces, G., Arrieta-Escobar, J.A., Sadtler, V., and Kacha, M. (2022, January 19\u201323). Towards a Protocol for Preference Evaluation of Cosmetic Products Using Physiological Sensors. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 28th International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation (ICE\/ITMC) & 31st International Association For Management of Technology (IAMOT) Joint Conference, Nancy, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICE\/ITMC-IAMOT55089.2022.10033174"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.explore.2023.06.006","article-title":"The effect of Aromatherapy with Pelargonium graveolens (P. graveolens) on the fatigue and sleep quality of critical care nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"20","author":"Karimi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Explore"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.03.495","article-title":"Biological and pharmaceutical properties of essential oils of Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Lavandula officinalis L.","volume":"45","author":"Diass","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Hachlafi, N., Benkhaira, N., Al-Mijalli, S.H., Mrabti, H.N., Abdnim, R., Abdallah, E.M., Jeddi, M., Bnouham, M., Lee, L.-H., and Ardianto, C. (2023). Phytochemical analysis and evaluation of antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic activities of essential oils from Moroccan medicinal plants: Mentha suaveolens, Lavandula stoechas, and Ammi visnaga. Biomed. Pharmacother., 164.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.114937"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"87","article-title":"The effect of odor exposure time on olfactory cognitive processing: An ERP study","volume":"18","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Integr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, B., Cai, W., Deng, L., Zhu, M., Chen, B., Lei, Q., Chen, H., and Wu, Y. (2022, January 28\u201330). Research on the effect of olfactory stimulus parameters on awakening effect of driving fatigue. Proceedings of the 2022 6th CAA International Conference on Vehicular Control and Intelligence (CVCI), Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVCI56766.2022.9964705"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46339","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3067167","article-title":"Atlas analysis of the impact of the interval changes in yellow light signals on driving behavior","volume":"9","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qu, F., and Xie, Q. (2023, January 21\u201324). Effects of aircraft noise on psychophysiological feedback in under-route open spaces. Proceedings of the INTER-NOISE and NOISE-CON Congress and Conference Proceedings, Glasgow, Scotland.","DOI":"10.3397\/IN_2022_0735"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, B., Lian, Z., and Brown, R.D. (2019). Effect of landscape microclimates on thermal comfort and physiological wellbeing. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11195387"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sie, J.-H., Chen, Y.-H., Shiau, Y.-H., and Chu, W.-C. (2019). Gender- and age-specific differences in resting-state functional connectivity of the central autonomic network in adulthood. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00369"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tonacci, A., Billeci, L., Di Mambro, I., Marangoni, R., Sanmartin, C., and Venturi, F. (2021). Wearable sensors for assessing the role of olfactory training on the autonomic response to olfactory stimulation. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21030770"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walla, P., Brenner, G., and Koller, M. (2011). Objective measures of emotion related to brand attitude: A new way to quantify emotion-related aspects relevant to marketing. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0026782"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180120","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2018.120","article-title":"Emotional ratings and skin conductance response to visual, auditory and haptic stimuli","volume":"5","author":"Gatti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2021.100011","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in education: Using heart rate variability (HRV) as a biomarker to assess emotions objectively","volume":"2","author":"Chung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s40846-017-0238-0","article-title":"Differences of heart rate variability between happiness and sadness emotion states: A pilot study","volume":"37","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2022.11.001","article-title":"Concordance between facial micro-expressions and physiological signals under emotion elicitation","volume":"164","author":"Zou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s40846-019-00505-7","article-title":"Emotion recognition from multimodal physiological signals for emotion aware healthcare systems","volume":"40","author":"Ayata","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macey, P.M., Rieken, N.S., Kumar, R., Ogren, J.A., Middlekauff, H.R., Wu, P., Woo, M.A., and Harper, R.M. (2016). Sex differences in insular cortex gyri responses to the Valsalva maneuver. Front. Neurol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2016.00087"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/17\/5604\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:45:02Z","timestamp":1760111102000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/17\/5604"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s24175604"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24175604","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]]}}}