{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T12:03:59Z","timestamp":1780401839806,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,1]],"date-time":"2024-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725148800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the current study, which focuses on the operational safety problem in intelligent three-dimensional garages, an obstacle avoidance measurement and control scheme for the AGV parking robot is proposed. Under the premise of high-precision distance detection using Kalman filtering, a mathematical model of a brushless DC (BLDC) motor with full-speed range hybrid control is established. MATLAB\/Simulink (R2022a) is used to build the control model, which has dual closed-loop vector-controlled motors in the low- to medium-speed range, with photoelectric encoders for speed feedback. The simulation results show that, at lower to medium speeds, the maximum overshoot of the output response curve is 1.5%, and the response time is 0.01 s. However, at higher speeds, there is significant jitter in the speed output waveform. Therefore, the speed feedback is switched to a sliding mode observer (SMO) instead of the original speed sensor at high speeds. Experiments show that, based on the SMO, the problem of speed waveform jitter at high motor speeds can be significantly improved, and the BLDC motor system has strong robustness. The above shows that the motor speed under the full-speed range hybrid control system can meet the AGV control and safety requirements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24175694","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]],"date-time":"2024-09-02T12:54:42Z","timestamp":1725281682000},"page":"5694","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Ultrasonic Obstacle Avoidance and Full-Speed-Range Hybrid Control for Intelligent Garages"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2284-0447","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lijie","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Measurement-Control Technology and Communications Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"},{"name":"The Higher Educational Key Laboratory for Measuring & Control Technology and Instrumentation of Heilongjiang Province, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xianwen","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Measurement-Control Technology and Communications Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"},{"name":"The Higher Educational Key Laboratory for Measuring & Control Technology and Instrumentation of Heilongjiang Province, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ziyi","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Measurement-Control Technology and Communications Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"},{"name":"The Higher Educational Key Laboratory for Measuring & Control Technology and Instrumentation of Heilongjiang Province, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuchao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Measurement-Control Technology and Communications Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"},{"name":"The Higher Educational Key Laboratory for Measuring & Control Technology and Instrumentation of Heilongjiang Province, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"31","article-title":"Patent Technology Development of Intelligent Stereo Garage","volume":"14","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"China Sci. Technol. Inf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1007\/s40430-024-04896-w","article-title":"A review of recent advances, techniques, and control algorithms for automated guided vehicle systems","volume":"46","author":"Bhargava","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Braz. Soc. Mech. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"107","article-title":"Three-closed-loop motor control system in intelligent measurement and control of a three-dimensional garage","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electr. Mach. Control."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nair, D.S., Jagadanand, G., and George, S. (2017\u20131, January 29). Sensorless direct torque controlled BLDC motor drive with Kalman filter algorithm. Proceedings of the IECON 2017\u201443rd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IECON.2017.8216363"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mamadapur, A., and Mahadev, G.U. (2019, January 21\u201323). In Speed control of BLDC motor using neural network controller and PID controller. Proceedings of the 2019 2nd International Conference on Power and Embedded Drive Control (ICPEDC), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPEDC47771.2019.9036695"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"144","article-title":"Real-Time Simulation and Experimental Implementation of Luenberger Observer-Based Speed Sensor Fault Detection of BLDC Motors","volume":"18","author":"Almobaied","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Mech. Autom."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"400","article-title":"Autotuning Fuzzy PID Controller for Speed Control of BLDC Motor","volume":"2","author":"Kristiyono","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Robot. Control (JRC)"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54833","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3175011","article-title":"A Review of BLDC Motor: State of Art, Advanced Control Techniques, and Applications","volume":"10","author":"Mohanraj","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Experimental test of ultrasonic range measurement and obstacle avoidance system for mobile robot","volume":"50","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mach. Tools Hydraul."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cox, J., and Wilfong, G.T. (1990). The Kalman Filter: An Introduction to Concepts. Autonomous Robot Vehicles Ingemar, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-8997-2"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Govaers, F. (2019). Introduction to Kalman Filter and Its Applications. Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter, BoD\u2013Books on Demand. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.75731"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Li, J.Z. (2015). Research on Ultrasonic Localization Based on Modal Optimized Kalman Filtering, Shandong Normal University. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"146","article-title":"Interactive multi-model Kalman filtering algorithm based on multiple speed and distance measurements","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inf. Technol. Informatiz."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"103","article-title":"Research on the localization of two-wheeled differential robot based on multi-sensor fusion","volume":"32","author":"Qian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Electron. Fabr."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Guo, Y. (2020). Structure and Control System Design of Parking Robot in Underground Garage, Chang\u2019an University. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, G., Feng, J., Wang, G., and Han, S. (2023). BLDC Motors Sensorless Control Based on MLP Topology Neural Network. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16104027"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115104","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/19\/11\/115104","article-title":"Metrological errors in optical encoders","volume":"19","author":"Morlanes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Xu, Z., and Zhang, Y. (2019, January 24\u201326). Induction motor control system based on FOC algorithm. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 8th Joint International Information Technology and Artificial Intelligence Conference (ITAIC), Chongqing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITAIC.2019.8785597"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chao, W., Qiang, G., and Jing, T. (2019, January 1\u20133). An Implementation Method of SVPWM Modulation Algorithm. Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (AIAAT), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/646\/1\/012066"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Wang, Z., Wang, W., Lv, Y., Yuan, B., Wang, S., Li, W., Li, Q., Zhang, Q., and Chen, Q. (2022). SMO-Based Sensorless Control of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor. Front. Energy Res., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenrg.2022.839329"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"Design of a brushless DC motor system based on a slip film observer","volume":"57","author":"Jin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Agric. Equip. Veh. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., Xiong, G., Wang, J., Zhang, X., Wang, S., and Wang, X. (2020, January 9\u201313). A SMO Based Position Sensorless Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Control Strategy. Proceedings of the 2020 15th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA), Kristiansand, Norway.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIEA48937.2020.9248232"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"52","article-title":"A PMSM dual closed-loop PI controller tuning method based on frequency domain analysis","volume":"45","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Artill. Firing Control"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Girija, P., and Prince, A. (2014, January 9\u201311). Robustness evaluation of SMO based speed-position estimation in BLDC motor. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering (ICAEE), Vellore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAEE.2014.6838473"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mingxia, C., and Yuguang, Z. (2016, January 11\u201312). Simulation Research on Sensorless Speed Control System of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Based on SMO. Proceedings of the 2016 Eighth International Conference on Measuring Technology and Mechatronics Automation (ICMTMA), Macau, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMTMA.2016.149"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, S., Zhang, Z., Wang, J., Wang, K., Zhao, H., and Li, Z. (2022). Integrated Predictive Control of PMLSM Current and Velocity Based on ST-SMO. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15155504"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/17\/5694\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:46:42Z","timestamp":1760111202000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/17\/5694"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,1]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s24175694"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24175694","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,1]]}}}