{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T03:43:47Z","timestamp":1773373427754,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,4]],"date-time":"2024-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725408000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecu\u00e1ria\u2014Embrapa (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32.12.12.004.00.00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32.12.12.004.00.00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecu\u00e1ria\u2014Embrapa (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["45.000.32.537"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["45.000.32.537"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Itaipu Binacional","award":["32.12.12.004.00.00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32.12.12.004.00.00"]}]},{"name":"Itaipu Binacional","award":["45.000.32.537"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["45.000.32.537"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The scientific field of precision agriculture employs increasingly innovative techniques to optimize inputs, maximize profitability, and reduce environmental impact. However, obtaining a high number of soil samples is challenging in order to make precision agriculture viable. There is a trade-off between the amount of data needed and the time and resources spent to obtain these data compared to the accuracy of the maps produced with more or fewer points. In the present study, the research was based on an exhaustive dataset of apparent electrical conductivity (aEC) containing 3906 points distributed along 26 transects with spacing between each of up to 40 m, measured by the proximal soil sensor EM38-MK2, for a grain-producing area of 72 ha in S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil. A second sparse dataset was simulated, showing only four transects with a 400 m distance and, in the end, only 162 aEC points. The aEC map via ordinary kriging (OK) from the grid with 26 transects was considered the reference, and two other mapping approaches were used to map aEC via sparse grid: kriging with external drift (KED) and geographically weighted regression (GWR). These last two methods allow the increment of auxiliary variables, such as those obtained by remote sensors that present spatial resolution compatible with the pivot scale, such as data from the Landsat-8, Aster, and Sentinel-2 satellites, as well as ten terrain covariates derived from the Alos Palsar digital elevation model. The KED method, when used with the sparse dataset, showed a relatively good fit to the aEC data (R2 = 0.78), with moderate prediction accuracy (MAE = 1.26, RMSE = 1.62) and reasonable predictability (RPD = 1.76), outperforming the GWR method, which had the weakest performance (R2 = 0.57, MAE = 1.78, RMSE = 2.30, RPD = 0.81). The reference aEC map using the exhaustive dataset and OK showed the highest accuracy with an R2 of 0.97, no systematic bias (ME = 0), and excellent precision (RMSE = 0.56, RPD = 5.86). Management zones (MZs) derived from these maps were validated using soil texture data from clay samples measured at 0\u201310 cm depth in a grid of 72 points. The KED method demonstrated the highest potential for accurately defining MZs for irrigation, producing a map that closely resembled the reference MZ map, thereby providing reliable guidance for irrigation management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24175742","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,4]],"date-time":"2024-09-04T05:54:47Z","timestamp":1725429287000},"page":"5742","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Remote and Proximal Sensors Data Fusion: Digital Twins in Irrigation Management Zoning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8070-8126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hugo","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, McCarty Hall, 1604 McCarty Dr 1008, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8611-314X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcos B.","family":"Ceddia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AgroTechnologies and Sustainability Department, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR-465, Km 7, Serop\u00e9dica 23897-000, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Wagner","family":"Tassinari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 22460-000, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9463-1898","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gustavo M.","family":"Vasques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brazilian Agricultural Research Company (Embrapa) Soils, Rio de Janeiro 22460-000, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8165-6989","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ziany N.","family":"Brand\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brazilian Agricultural Research Company (Embrapa) Cotton, Rua Osvaldo Cruz, 1143, Centen\u00e1rio 58428-095, CG, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2190-248X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o P. S.","family":"Morais","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brazilian Agricultural Research Company (Embrapa) Cotton, Rua Osvaldo Cruz, 1143, Centen\u00e1rio 58428-095, CG, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5414-6932","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ronaldo P.","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brazilian Agricultural Research Company (Embrapa) Soils, Rio de Janeiro 22460-000, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Matheus L.","family":"Neves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Agronomy\u2014Soil Science, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, BR-465, Km 7, Serop\u00e9dica 23897-000, RJ, Brazil"}]},{"given":"S\u00edlvio R. 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