{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:06:40Z","timestamp":1787029600578,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,21]],"date-time":"2024-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"icipe\u2013World Bank Financing Agreement","award":["D347-3A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D347-3A"]}]},{"name":"icipe\u2013World Bank Financing Agreement","award":["TF0A8639"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TF0A8639"]}]},{"name":"World Bank Korea Trust Fund Agreement","award":["D347-3A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D347-3A"]}]},{"name":"World Bank Korea Trust Fund Agreement","award":["TF0A8639"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TF0A8639"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we present the development and evaluation of a contextually relevant, cost-effective, multihop cluster-based agricultural Internet of Things (MCA-IoT) network. This network utilizes commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE) and LoRa communication technologies, along with the Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ (RPi 3 B+), to address the challenges of climate change-induced global food insecurity in smart farming applications. Employing the lean engineering design approach, we initially implemented a centralized cluster-based agricultural IoT (CA-IoT) hardware testbed incorporating BLE, RPi 3 B+, STEMMA soil moisture sensors, UM25 m, and LoPy low-power Wi-Fi modules. This system was subsequently adapted and refined to assess the performance of the MCA-IoT network. This study offers a comprehensive reference on the novel, location-independent MCA-IoT technology, including detailed design and deployment insights for the agricultural IoT (Agri-IoT) community. The proposed solution demonstrated favorable performance in indoor and outdoor environments, particularly in water-stressed regions of Northern Ghana. Performance evaluations revealed that the MCA-IoT technology is easy to deploy and manage by users with limited expertise, is location-independent, robust, energy-efficient for battery operation, and scalable in terms of task and size, thereby providing a versatile range of measurements for future applications. Our results further demonstrated that the most effective approach to utilizing existing IoT-based communication technologies within a typical farming context in sub-Saharan Africa is to integrate them.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24186113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,24]],"date-time":"2024-09-24T08:56:06Z","timestamp":1727168166000},"page":"6113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Hardware Development and Evaluation of Multihop Cluster-Based Agricultural IoT Based on Bluetooth Low-Energy and LoRa Communication Technologies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4080-3943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Effah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering Department, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa P.O. Box 237, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Ghartey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering Department, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa P.O. Box 237, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua Kweku","family":"Aidoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Engineering Department, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa P.O. Box 237, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9560-1196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ousmane","family":"Thiare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, Gaston Berger University, Saint-Louis PB 234, Senegal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Tauseef, S., Nadeem, J., and Talha, Q. (2012, January 13\u201315). Energy Efficient Sleep Awake Aware (EESAA) intelligent Sensor Network routing protocol. Proceedings of the International Multitopic Conference (INMIC), Islamabad, Pakistan."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Gennari, P., and Moncayo, J.R. (2018). World Food and Agriculture Statistical Pocketbook, FAO of the UN."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartung, R., Kulau, U., Gernert, B., Rottmann, S., and Wolf, L. 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