{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:29:49Z","timestamp":1760146189110,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727654400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Dotation of Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education","award":["BK-260\/Re-4\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK-260\/Re-4\/2024"]}]},{"name":"Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering at the Silesian University of Technology","award":["BK-260\/Re-4\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK-260\/Re-4\/2024"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The fabrication process of reduced graphene oxide depends on many factors (e.g., graphite precursor, methods of oxidation, reduction, and exfoliation) which have a significant influence on the properties of this material. Therefore, their selection is not easy due to the large number of possible combinations of these factors. To overcome this problem, we proposed to use a multivariate analysis of variance method of finding associations between the qualitative type of independent variables and the quantitative type of dependent variable. Using ANOVA, we showed that the combination (interaction) of these variables is more important than the individual influence of the variables on the fabricated rGO. Knowing how the particular variables and their combinations affect the properties of rGO, it is easier to plan the fabrication process of this material. In this paper, we analyzed the number of oxide layers and designated the most promising oxides in terms of sensor gas application. Independently, we fabricated chemiresistor sensors and studied their response to NO2 in the analyzed atmosphere. We were able to combine the experimental results with statistical analysis indicating which oxidation methods and which graphite precursors will provide the best sensitivity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24196346","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T11:32:05Z","timestamp":1727695925000},"page":"6346","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Statistical Analysis of the Influence of Various Types of Graphite Precursors and Oxidation Methods on the Gas Sensor Properties of Reduced Graphene Oxide"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Drewniak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5235-4335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabina","family":"Drewniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6037-7748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcin","family":"Sajdak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Air Protection, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6722-9710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roksana","family":"Muzyka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Air Protection, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majhi, S.M., Mirzaei, A., Kim, H.W., and Kim, S.S. (2021). Reduced graphene oxide (Rgo)-loaded metal-oxide nanofiber gas sensors: An overview. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041352"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445502","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/20\/44\/445502","article-title":"Reduced graphene oxide for room-temperature gas sensors","volume":"20","author":"Lu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3137","DOI":"10.1021\/nl8013007","article-title":"Reduced graphene oxide molecular sensors","volume":"8","author":"Robinson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2019.04.109","article-title":"Influence of protons on reduction degree and defect formation in electrochemically reduced graphene oxide","volume":"149","author":"Ania","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13453","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.201202320","article-title":"Graphite oxides: Effects of permanganate and chlorate oxidants on the oxygen composition","volume":"18","author":"Chua","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Eur. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2011.11.010","article-title":"The reduction of graphene oxide","volume":"50","author":"Pei","year":"2012","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2007.02.034","article-title":"Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide","volume":"45","author":"Stankovich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1515\/pjct-2015-0076","article-title":"Studies of physicochemical properties of graphite oxide and thermally","volume":"17","author":"Drewniak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pol. J. Chem. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2017.11.120","article-title":"Engineering reduced graphene oxides with enhanced electrochemical properties through multiple-step reductions","volume":"258","author":"Wei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2013.09.015","article-title":"Accelerated differentiation of neural stem cells into neurons on ginseng-reduced graphene oxide sheets","volume":"66","author":"Akhavan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81831","DOI":"10.1039\/C5RA14461B","article-title":"Enhanced reduction of graphene oxide by high-pressure hydrothermal treatment","volume":"5","author":"Diez","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7306","DOI":"10.1039\/C7CS00485K","article-title":"Synthesis and reduction of large sized graphene oxide sheets","volume":"46","author":"Dong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750087","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218625X17500871","article-title":"Synthesis of graphene oxide using mildly oxidized graphite through ultrasonic exfoliation","volume":"24","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Surf. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2022.11.052","article-title":"Understanding the nature of graphene oxide functional groups by modulation of the electrochemical reduction: A combined experimental and theoretical approach","volume":"203","author":"Ferrari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aliyev, E., Filiz, V., Khan, M.M., Lee, Y.J., Abetz, C., and Abetz, V. (2019). Structural characterization of graphene oxide: Surface functional groups and fractionated oxidative debris. Nanomaterials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano9081180"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sali, S., Mackey, H.R., and Abdala, A.A. (2019). Effect of graphene oxide synthesis method on properties and performance of polysulfone-graphene oxide mixed matrix membranes. Nanomaterials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano9050769"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1039\/C9TC04916A","article-title":"Reduced graphene oxide today","volume":"8","author":"Tarcan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawal, A.T. (2019). Graphene-based nano composites and their applications. A review. Biosens. Bioelectron., 141.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.111384"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonavolont\u00e0, C., Vettoliere, A., Falco, G., Aramo, C., Rendina, I., Ruggiero, B., Silvestrini, P., and Valentino, M. (2021). Reduced graphene oxide on silicon-based structure as novel broadband photodetector. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92518-z"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoms.2019.02.004","article-title":"Synthesis, properties, and applications of graphene oxide\/reduced graphene oxide and their nanocomposites","volume":"1","author":"Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2012.09.059","article-title":"Critical temperatures in the synthesis of graphene-like materials by thermal exfoliation-reduction of graphite oxide","volume":"52","author":"Botas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"923403","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of reduced graphene oxide sheets via water-based exfoliation and reduction methods","volume":"1","author":"Loryuenyong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3507","DOI":"10.1007\/s10008-016-3332-2","article-title":"The use of different types of reduced graphene oxide in the preparation of Fe-N-C electrocatalysts: Capacitive behavior and oxygen reduction reaction activity in alkaline medium","volume":"20","author":"Osmieri","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Solid. State Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sieradzka, M., \u015alusarczyk, C., Binia\u015b, W., and Fryczkowski, R. (2021). The role of the oxidation and reduction parameters on the properties of the reduced graphene oxide. Coatings, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings11020166"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00e1ez, D.F., Pardo, H., Laborda, I., Marco, J.F., Y\u00e1\u00f1ez, C., and Bollo, S. (2017). Reduced graphene oxides: Influence of the reduction method on the electrocatalytic effect towards nucleic acid oxidation. Nanomaterials, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano7070168"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drewniak, S., Procek, M., Muzyka, R., and Pustelny, T. (2020). Comparison of gas sensing properties of reduced graphene oxide obtained by two different methods. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113175"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2013.08.009","article-title":"Graphene materials with different structures prepared from the same graphite by the Hummers and Brodie methods","volume":"65","author":"Botas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2011.09.041","article-title":"Thermally reduced graphite oxide as positive electrode in vanadium redox flow batteries","volume":"50","author":"Botas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-7439(89)80095-4","article-title":"Analysis of variance (ANOVA)","volume":"6","author":"Sthle","year":"1989","journal-title":"Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.06.105","article-title":"A novel sensing mechanism for resistive gas sensors based on layered reduced graphene oxide thin films at room temperature","volume":"203","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2010.12.046","article-title":"Epitaxially grown graphene based gas sensors for ultra sensitive NO2 detection","volume":"155","author":"Pearce","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10231","DOI":"10.20964\/2020.10.72","article-title":"Preparation of chemically reduced graphene using hydrazine hydrate as the reduction agent and its NO2 sensitivity at room Temperature","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.09.078","article-title":"Flexible NO2 sensors fabricated by layer-by-layer covalent anchoring and in situ reduction of graphene oxide","volume":"190","author":"Su","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/19\/6346\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:07:58Z","timestamp":1760112478000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/19\/6346"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s24196346"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24196346","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]}}}