{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T13:07:27Z","timestamp":1773061647676,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]],"date-time":"2024-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727827200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52007046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52007046"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Spaceborne Global Lightning Location Network (SGLLN) serves the purpose of identifying transient lightning events occurring beneath the ionosphere, playing a significant role in detecting and warning of disaster weather events. To ensure the effective functioning of the wideband electromagnetic pulse detector, which is a crucial component of the SGLLN, it must be tested and verified with specific signals. However, the inherent randomness and unpredictability of lightning occurrences pose challenges to this requirement. Consequently, a high-power electromagnetic pulse radiation system with a 20 m aperture reflector is designed. This system is capable of emitting nanosecond electromagnetic pulse signals under pre-set spatial and temporal conditions, providing a controlled environment for assessing the detection capabilities of SGLLN. In the design phase, an exponentially TEM feed antenna has been designed firstly based on the principle of high-gain radiation. The feed antenna adopts a pulser-integrated design to mitigate insulation risks, and it is equipped with an asymmetric protective loading to reduce reflected energy by 85.7%. Moreover, an innovative assessment method for gain loss, based on the principle of Love\u2019s equivalence, is proposed to quantify the impact of feed antenna on the radiation field. During the experimental phase, a specialized E-field sensor is used in the far-field experiment at a distance of 400 m. The measurements indicate that at this distance, the signal has a peak field strength of 2.2 kV\/m, a rise time of 1.9 ns, and a pulse half-width of 2.5 ns. Additionally, the beamwidth in the time domain is less than 10\u00b0. At an altitude of 500 km, the spaceborne detector records a signal with a peak field strength of approximately 10 mV\/m. Particularly, this signal transformed into a nonlinear frequency-modulated signal in the microsecond range across its frequency spectrum, which is consistent with the law of radio wave propagation in the ionosphere. This study offers a stable and robust radiation source for verifying spaceborne detectors and establishes an empirical foundation for investigating the impact of the ionosphere on signal propagation characteristics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24196406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,3]],"date-time":"2024-10-03T03:36:03Z","timestamp":1727926563000},"page":"6406","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Design of a High-Power Nanosecond Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation System for Verifying Spaceborne Detectors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Tianchi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocab":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zongxiang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocab":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Changjiao","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China"},{"name":"College of Information and Communication Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocab":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lihua","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China"},{"name":"College of Information and Communication Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocab":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yongli","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocab":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kejie","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocab":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocab":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Baofeng","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocab":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1029\/95GL00432","article-title":"Satellite Observations of Transionospheric Pulse Pairs","volume":"22","author":"Holden","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15653","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD900103","article-title":"FORTE Radio-Frequency Observations of Lightning Strokes Detected by the National Lightning Detection Network","volume":"105","author":"Jacobson","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2015.06.009","article-title":"\u201cSolitary\u201d Trans-Ionospheric Pulse Pairs Onboard of the Microsatellite \u201cChibis-M\u201d","volume":"56","author":"Dolgonosov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"6317","article-title":"Methodology and Experiment Study for the Derivation of Propagation Parameters of the Transionospheric Electromagnetic Pulse Signal","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2023RS007931","DOI":"10.1029\/2023RS007931","article-title":"Radio Frequency Sensor: Very High Frequency Radio Frequency Lightning Detection in Geostationary Orbit","volume":"59","author":"Lay","year":"2024","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-023-2280-x","article-title":"A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2019 to 2022","volume":"40","author":"Lyu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barona Mendoza, J.J., Quiroga Ruiz, C.F., and Pinedo Jaramillo, C.R. (2017). Implementation of an Electronic Ionosonde to Monitor the Earth\u2019s Ionosphere via a Projected Column through USRP. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17050946"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074706","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0198093","article-title":"A Large-Aperture, High-Power Ultrawideband Radiation System with Beam Broadening Capacity","volume":"95","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1134\/S0020441223020136","article-title":"A High-Power Source of Ultrawideband Radiation of Subnanosecond Duration with Controllable Characteristics","volume":"66","author":"Balzovsky","year":"2023","journal-title":"Instrum. Exp. Tech."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Zheng, C., Ge, Y., and Guo, A. (2023). Ultra-Wideband Technology: Characteristcs, Applications and Challenges. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2199","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-map.2018.5237","article-title":"Far-Field Boundary Estimation for the High-Power UWB Pulsed Antennas","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IET Microw. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.2528\/PIERC17111706","article-title":"Experimental Studies and Analysis on IEMI Source, Field Propagation and IEMI Coupling to Power Utility System","volume":"83","author":"Shyamala","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Electromagn. Res. C"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2004.829011","article-title":"JOLT: A Highly Directive, Very Intensive, Impulse-like Radiator","volume":"92","author":"Baum","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morton, D., Banister, J., Levine, J., Naff, T., Smith, I., Sze, H., Warren, T., Giri, D.V., Mora, C., and Pavlinko, J. (2010, January 23\u201327). A 2MV, <300ps Risetime, 100 Hz Pulser for Generation of Microwaves. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Power Modulator and High Voltage Conference (IPMHVC), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPMHVC.2010.5958368"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2019.2901839","article-title":"Integrated-Antenna-Source of Directive Peak Electric-Field Patterns for High-Power Ultrawideband Parabolic Reflector System","volume":"18","author":"Ryu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1134\/S1028335823110083","article-title":"Generation of Rectangular Nanosecond Electromagnetic Pulses with a Picosecond Rise Front","volume":"68","author":"Garnov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dokl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"043012","article-title":"Optimization design of EMP radiation antenna based on TEM horn","volume":"36","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"High Power Laser Part. Beams"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fedorov, V.M., Ostashev, V.Y., and Ul\u2019yanov, A.V. (2017, January 22\u201325). TEM Antenna\u2019s Arrays and High Power Radiators of UWB Electromagnetic Sub-Nanosecond Impulses. Proceedings of the 2017 Electromagnetics Research Symposium-Spring (PIERS), St Petersburg, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIERS.2017.8262390"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fedorov, V.M., Efanov, M.V., Ostashev, V.Y., Tarakanov, V.P., and Ul\u2019yanov, A.V. (2021). Antenna Array with TEM-Horn for Radiation of High-Power Ultra Short Electromagnetic Pulses. Electronics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10091011"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"411","article-title":"High-Power Ultra-Wideband Electromagnetic Pulse Radiation System Based on the Impulse Radiating Antenna","volume":"49","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"High. Volt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Pozar, D.M. (2005). Microwave Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Time Domain Characterization of Antennas with TEM Feeds","volume":"426","author":"Farr","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sens. Simul. Notes"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Farr, E.G., and Baum, C.E. (1993, January 10\u201314). Extending the Definitions of Antenna Gain and Radiation Pattern Into the Time Domain. Proceedings of the PIERS (Progress in Electromagnetic Research) meeting, Pasadena, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Martin, T.H. (1989, January 11\u201314). An Empirical Formula for Gas Switch Breakdown Delay. Proceedings of the 7th Pulsed Power Conference, Monterey, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Sun, B. (2010). Resesrch of High Gain Ultra-Wideband Antenna Based on TEM Mode, Harbin Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Fu, J., and Feng, E. (2000). Advanced Electromagnetic Theory, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University Press."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1134\/S1063780X16090099","article-title":"Propagation of an Ultrawideband Electromagnetic Signal in Ionospheric Plasma","volume":"42","author":"Soldatov","year":"2016","journal-title":"Plasma Phys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, Y., Zhu, D., Li, Z., Wang, L., Wang, Y., Zhang, T., Xing, B., Cao, B., and Li, P. (2023). Dispersive Propagation of Nuclear Electromagnetic Pulse in the Ionosphere. Front. Astron. Space Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fspas.2023.1201921"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3788\/HPLPB20112302.0441","article-title":"Calculation of High Altitude Nuclear Electromagnetic Pulse Propagation in Ionosphere","volume":"23","author":"Cheng","year":"2011","journal-title":"High Power Laser Part. Beams"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2024, September 29). CCMC Instant Run System, Available online: https:\/\/kauai.ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov\/instantrun\/iri\/."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/19\/6406\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:09:37Z","timestamp":1760112577000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/19\/6406"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s24196406"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24196406","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]]}}}