{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T06:14:08Z","timestamp":1778220848242,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,13]],"date-time":"2019-06-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1560384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, a new face recognition architecture is proposed using fuzzy-based Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) and fuzzy with two novel local graph descriptors. These graph descriptors are called Local Cross Pattern (LCP). The proposed fuzzy wavelet-based face recognition architecture consists of DWT, Triangular fuzzy set transformation, and textural feature extraction with local descriptors and classification phases. Firstly, the LL (Low-Low) sub-band is obtained by applying the 2 Dimensions Discrete Wavelet Transform (2D DWT) to face images. After that, the triangular fuzzy transformation is applied to this band in order to obtain A, B, and C images. The proposed LCP is then applied to the B image. LCP consists of two types of descriptors: Vertical Local Cross Pattern (VLCP) and Horizontal Local Cross Pattern (HLCP). Linear discriminant analysis, quadratic discriminant, analysis, quadratic kernel-based support vector machine (QKSVM), and K-nearest neighbors (KNN) were ultimately used to classify the extracted features. Ten widely used descriptors in the literature are applied to the fuzzy wavelet architecture. AT&amp;T, CIE, Face94, and FERET databases are used for performance evaluation of the proposed methods. Experimental results show that the LCP descriptors have high face recognition performance, and the fuzzy wavelet-based model significantly improves the performances of the textural descriptors-based face recognition methods. Moreover, the proposed fuzzy-based domain and LCP method achieved classification accuracy rates of 97.3%, 100.0%, 100.0%, and 96.3% for AT&amp;T, CIE, Face94, and FERET datasets, respectively.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym11060787","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,13]],"date-time":"2019-06-13T11:15:58Z","timestamp":1560424558000},"page":"787","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Face Recognition with Triangular Fuzzy Set-Based Local Cross Patterns in Wavelet Domain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5126-6445","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Turker","family":"Tuncer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Digital Forensics Engineering, Technology Faculty, Firat University, 23119 Elazig, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sengul","family":"Dogan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Digital Forensics Engineering, Technology Faculty, Firat University, 23119 Elazig, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Moloud","family":"Abdar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement d\u2019Informatique, Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Montreal, 201, av. Pr\u00e9sident-Kennedy, Montr\u00e9al, QC H2X 3Y7, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Ehsan Basiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord 64165478, Iran"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4317-2801","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"P\u0142awiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Teleinformatics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24 st., F-5, 31-155 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.1109\/34.244676","article-title":"High confidence visual recognition of persons by a test of statistical independence","volume":"15","author":"Daugman","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1530","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2014.2381273","article-title":"Biometric antispoofing methods: A survey in face recognition","volume":"2","author":"Galbally","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2017.05.041","article-title":"Person recognition based on touch screen gestures using computational intelligence methods","volume":"415","author":"Rzecki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2016.2550528","article-title":"Hand body language gesture recognition based on signals from specialized glove and machine learning algorithms","volume":"12","author":"Tabor","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1109\/TCE.2011.5955219","article-title":"A motion and similarity-based fake detection method for biometric face recognition systems","volume":"57","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1006\/cviu.2001.0921","article-title":"Face detection: A survey","volume":"83","author":"Low","year":"2001","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2005.01.018","article-title":"Face recognition using a fuzzy fisherface classifier","volume":"38","author":"Kwak","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Muqeet, M.A., and Holambe, R.S. (2017). Local binary patterns based on directional wavelet transform for expression and pose-invariant face recognition. Appl. Comput. Inform."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2012.10.032","article-title":"A comparative study on local binary pattern (LBP) based face recognition: LBP histogram versus LBP image","volume":"120","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2017.02.047","article-title":"Image feature representation with orthogonal symmetric local weber graph structure","volume":"240","author":"Tao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3203(99)00179-X","article-title":"Bayesian face recognition","volume":"33","author":"Moghaddam","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCA.2010.2104318","article-title":"Face recognition with an improved interval type-2 fuzzy logic sugeno integral and modular neural networks","volume":"41","author":"Melin","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Manand Cybern. Part A Syst. Hum."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1109\/TNN.2006.883013","article-title":"Face recognition using total margin-based adaptive fuzzy support vector machines","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Co\u015fkun, M., U\u00e7ar, A., Yildirim, \u00d6., and Demir, Y. (2017, January 15\u201317). Face recognition based on convolutional neural network. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Modern Electrical and Energy Systems (MEES), Kremenchuk, Ukraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/MEES.2017.8248937"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Baloglu, U.B., Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m, \u00d6., and U\u00e7ar, A. (2017). Person Recognition via Facial Expression Using ELM Classifier Based CNN Feature Maps. Proceedings of ELM-2017, Springer."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2016.2603535","article-title":"Local gradient hexa pattern: A descriptor for face recognition and retrieval","volume":"28","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2009.2035882","article-title":"Local derivative pattern versus local binary pattern: Face recognition with high-order local pattern descriptor","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2017.09.055","article-title":"Local diagonal extrema number pattern: A new feature descriptor for face recognition","volume":"81","author":"Pillai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2016.12.008","article-title":"An application of chain code-based local descriptor and its extension to face recognition","volume":"65","author":"Karczmarek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2016.04.021","article-title":"Extended local binary patterns for face recognition","volume":"358","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-cvi.2013.0208","article-title":"Histogram of gradient phases: A new local descriptor for face recognition","volume":"8","author":"Su","year":"2014","journal-title":"IET Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.image.2015.12.003","article-title":"LEDTD: Local edge direction and texture descriptor for face recognition","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Signal Process. Image Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6006","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2017.2726010","article-title":"Local directional ternary pattern for facial expression recognition","volume":"26","author":"Ryu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2002.1114855","article-title":"Discriminant waveletfaces and nearest feature classifiers for face recognition","volume":"24","author":"Chien","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1109\/TNN.2003.820673","article-title":"Face recognition by applying wavelet subband representation and kernel associative memory","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imavis.2004.09.002","article-title":"Multiresolution face recognition","volume":"23","author":"Ekenel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Chen, Q., Wu, H., and Yachida, M. (1995, January 20\u201323). Face detection by fuzzy pattern matching. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Cambridge, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-cvi.2014.0200","article-title":"Face recognition under varying illumination based on adaptive homomorphic eight local directional patterns","volume":"9","author":"Faraji","year":"2014","journal-title":"IET Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Guo, G., Li, S.Z., and Chan, K. (2000, January 28\u201330). Face recognition by support vector machines. Proceedings of the Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, Grenoble, France."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20641","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2825310","article-title":"Enhanced Human Face Recognition Using LBPH Descriptor, Multi-KNN, and Back-Propagation Neural Network","volume":"6","author":"Abuzneid","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beyer, K., Goldstein, J., Ramakrishnan, R., and Shaft, U. (1999). When is \u201cnearest neighbor\u201d meaningful?. International Conference on Database Theory, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-49257-7_15"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3203(99)00139-9","article-title":"A new LDA-based face recognition system which can solve the small sample size problem","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3203(00)00162-X","article-title":"A direct LDA algorithm for high-dimensional data\u2014With application to face recognition","volume":"34","author":"Yu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3079","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8655(03)00167-3","article-title":"Regularized discriminant analysis for the small sample size problem in face recognition","volume":"24","author":"Lu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2003.10.014","article-title":"Face recognition using partial least squares components","volume":"37","author":"Baek","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2004.09.014","article-title":"Regularization studies of linear discriminant analysis in small sample size scenarios with application to face recognition","volume":"26","author":"Lu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogsys.2018.12.001","article-title":"A novel machine learning approach for early detection of hepatocellular carcinoma patients","volume":"54","author":"Abdar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cogn. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2014.04.026","article-title":"An estimation of the state of consumption of a positive displacement pump based on dynamic pressure or vibrations using neural networks","volume":"144","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"P\u0142awiak, P., and Acharya, U.R. (2019). Novel deep genetic ensemble of classifiers for arrhythmia detection using ECG signals. Neural Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Abdar, M., Zomorodi-Moghadam, M., Zhou, X., Gururajan, R., Tao, X., Barua, P.D., and Gururajan, R. (2019). A new nested ensemble technique for automated diagnosis of breast cancer. Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2149","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2005.858566","article-title":"Nonlinear processing and semantic content analysis in medical imaging\u2014A cognitive approach","volume":"54","author":"Ogiela","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Measurement"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tadeusiewicz, R., Ogiela, L., and Ogiela, M.R. (2006). Cognitive analysis techniques in business planning and decision support systems. International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/11785231_108"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogiela, L., Tadeusiewicz, R., and Ogiela, M.R. (2006). Cognitive analysis in diagnostic DSS-type IT systems. International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/11785231_101"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1515\/amcs-2015-0046","article-title":"Acoustic analysis assessment in speech pathology detection","volume":"25","author":"Panek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Math. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Samaria, F., and Harter, A. (1994, January 5\u20137). Parameterisation of a stochastic model for human face identification. Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision, Sarasota, FL, USA. Available online: http:\/\/www.cl.cam.ac.uk\/research\/dtg\/attarchive\/facedatabase.html."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1049\/el.2011.1441","article-title":"Vein pattern database and benchmark results","volume":"47","author":"Kabacinski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2019, May 08). Libor Spacek\u2019s Facial Image Database, \u201cFace94Database\u201d. Available online: http:\/\/cswww.essex.ac.uk\/mv\/allfaces\/faces94.html."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/S0262-8856(97)00070-X","article-title":"The FERET database and evaluation procedure for face recognition algorithms","volume":"16","author":"Phillips","year":"1998","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1109\/34.879790","article-title":"The FERET evaluation methodology for face recognition algorithms","volume":"22","author":"Phillips","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2002.1017623","article-title":"Multiresolution gray-scale and rotation invariant texture classification with local binary patterns","volume":"24","author":"Ojala","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Jacko, J.A. (2011). Face Recognition Using Local Graph Structure (LGS). Human-Computer Interaction. Interaction Techniques and Environments. HCI 2011, Springer. Lecture Notes in Computer Science."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2014.04.006","article-title":"Face recognition with symmetric local graph structure (SLGS)","volume":"41","author":"Abdullah","year":"2014","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2017.09.038","article-title":"Face identification using some novel local descriptors under the influence of facial complexities","volume":"92","author":"Rakshit","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."}],"container-title":["Symmetry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/11\/6\/787\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:58:11Z","timestamp":1760187491000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/11\/6\/787"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,13]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6]]}},"alternative-id":["sym11060787"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/sym11060787","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-8994"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-8994","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,13]]}}}