{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,11]],"date-time":"2026-04-11T01:03:35Z","timestamp":1775869415987,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,5]],"date-time":"2020-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1591315200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present investigation uses a blend of Nigella sativa biodiesel, diesel, n-butanol, and graphene oxide nanoparticles to enhance the performance, combustion and symmetric characteristics and to reduce the emissions from the diesel engine of a modified common rail direct injection (CRDI). A symmetric toroidal-type combustion chamber and a six-hole solenoid fuel injector were used in the current investigation. The research aimed to study the effect of two fuel additives, n-butanol and synthesized asymmetric graphene oxide nanoparticles, in improving the fuel properties of Nigella sativa biodiesel (NSME25). The concentration of n-butanol (10%) was kept constant, and asymmetric graphene oxide nano-additive and sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate (SDBS) surfactant were added to n-butanol and NSME25 in the form of nanofluid in varying proportions. The nanofluids were prepared using a probe sonication process to prevent nanoparticles from agglomerating in the base fluid. The process was repeated for biodiesel, n-butanol and nanofluid, and four different stable and symmetric nanofuel mixtures were prepared by varying the graphene oxide (30, 60, 90 and 120 ppm). The nanofuel blend NSME25B10GO90 displayed an enhancement in the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and a reduction in brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) at maximum load due to high catalytic activity and the enhanced microexplosion phenomenon developed by graphene oxide nanoparticles. The heat release rate (HRR), in-cylinder temperature increased, while exhaust gas temperature (EGT) decreased. Smoke, hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions also fell, in a trade-off with marginally increased NOx, for all nanofuel blends, compared with Nigella sativa biodiesel. The results obtained indicates that 90 ppm of graphene oxide nanoparticles and 10% n-butanol in Nigella sativa biodiesel are comparable with diesel fuel.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym12060961","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,9]],"date-time":"2020-06-09T06:34:16Z","timestamp":1591684456000},"page":"961","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":138,"title":["Effect of Nano-Graphene Oxide and n-Butanol Fuel Additives Blended with Diesel\u2014Nigella sativa Biodiesel Fuel Emulsion on Diesel Engine Characteristics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Hurmathulla","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, HMS Institute of Technology, Tumkur 572101, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0935-2040","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manzoore Elahi M.","family":"Soudagar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Rajagopal Harish","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Siddhartha Institute of Technology, Tumkur 572104, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4124-2431","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Reza","family":"Safaei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam"},{"name":"Faculty of Electrical\u2014Electronic Engineering, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam"},{"name":"Center of Research Excellence in Renewable Energy and Power Systems, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0287-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Farooq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Centre for Carbon Solutions, IMPEE, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK"}]},{"given":"Abdulqhadar","family":"Khidmatgar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1280-6234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nagaraj R","family":"Banapurmath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, B.V.B. College of Engineering and Technology, KLE Technological University, Vidyanagar, Hubli 580031, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8037-2538","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rizwan A.","family":"Farade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical Engineering Department, AIKTC School of Engineering and Technology, Panvel, Navimumbai 410206, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9134-9002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Mujtaba","family":"Abbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Asif","family":"Afzal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, P. A. College of Engineering (Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University Belagavi), Mangaluru 574153, India"}]},{"given":"Waqar","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1285-0593","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marjan","family":"Goodarzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sustainable Management of Natural Resources and Environment Research Group, Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}]},{"given":"Syed Noeman","family":"Taqui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2018.10.019","article-title":"The effect of nano-additives in diesel-biodiesel fuel blends: A comprehensive review on stability, engine performance and emission characteristics","volume":"178","author":"Soudagar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.08.025","article-title":"An investigation on the influence of aluminium oxide nano-additive and honge oil methyl ester on engine performance, combustion and emission characteristics","volume":"146","author":"Soudagar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116015","article-title":"The effects of graphene oxide nanoparticle additive stably dispersed in dairy scum oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blend on CI engine: Performance, emission and combustion characteristics","volume":"257","author":"Soudagar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2013.10.003","article-title":"Synthesis of biodiesel from Nigella sativa seed oil using surfactant-Br\u00f8nsted acidic-combined ionic liquid as catalyst","volume":"118","author":"Aghabarari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2070","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2012.01.003","article-title":"A comprehensive review on biodiesel as an alternative energy resource and its characteristics","volume":"16","author":"Atabani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2012.10.013","article-title":"Non-edible vegetable oils: A critical evaluation of oil extraction, fatty acid compositions, biodiesel production, characteristics, engine performance and emissions production","volume":"18","author":"Atabani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012029","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/225\/1\/012029","article-title":"Production of jath Oil Ethyl Ester (MOEE) and its Performance test on four stroke single cylinder VCR engine","volume":"Volume 225","author":"Soudagar","year":"2017","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2005.05.001","article-title":"Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India","volume":"29","author":"Azam","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Delvi, M.K., Soudagar, M.E.M., Khan, H., Ahmed, Z., and Shariff, I.M. (2020). Biodiesel Production Utilizing Diverse Sources, Classification of Oils and Their Esters, Performance and Emission Characteristics: A Research. IJRTE."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200006","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5122647","article-title":"Production of honge oil methyl ester (HOME) and its performance test on four stroke single cylinder VCR engine","volume":"Volume 2142","author":"Soudagar","year":"2019","journal-title":"AIP Conference Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.10.041","article-title":"Emission reduction in CI engine using biofuel reformulation strategies through nano additives for atmospheric air quality improvement","volume":"147","author":"Sheriff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2019.11.160","article-title":"Critical review on sesame seed oil and its methyl ester on cold flow and oxidation stability","volume":"6","author":"Mujtaba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1002\/bbb.39","article-title":"Jatropha biodiesel fueling sustainability?","volume":"1","author":"Achten","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefin. Innov. Sustain. Econ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.117116","article-title":"Performance improvement and exhaust emissions reduction in diesel engine through the use of graphene quantum dot (GQD) nanoparticles and ethanol-biodiesel blends","volume":"267","author":"Gundoshmian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2016.11.006","article-title":"Impact of Carbon Nanotubes and Di-Ethyl Ether as additives with biodiesel emulsion fuels in a diesel engine\u2014An experimental investigation","volume":"91","author":"Basha","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-019-08514-z","article-title":"A comprehensive review on nanofluid operated solar flat plate collectors","volume":"139","author":"Akram","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1341","article-title":"Graphite oxide nanoparticle as a diesel fuel additive for cleaner emissions and lower fuel consumption","volume":"30","author":"Ooi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2867","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201000736","article-title":"Self-propagating domino-like reactions in oxidized graphite","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5843","DOI":"10.1021\/es8006904","article-title":"Environmental applications of carbon-based nanomaterials","volume":"42","author":"Mauter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2017.04.013","article-title":"Performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine fuelled with carbon nanotubes and diesel-biodiesel blends","volume":"111","author":"Hosseini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Venkateswaran, S.P., and Nagarajan, G. (2010). Effects of the re-entrant bowl geometry on a DI turbocharged diesel engine performance and emissions\u2014A CFD approach. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, 132.","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4001294"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2015.10.004","article-title":"Effects of combustion chamber geometry on combustion characteristics of a DI diesel engine fueled with calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester","volume":"90","author":"Bapu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2018.02.104","article-title":"Novel environmentally friendly fuel: The effects of nanographene oxide additives on the performance and emission characteristics of diesel engines fuelled with Ailanthus altissima biodiesel","volume":"125","author":"Hoseini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2018.04.049","article-title":"Performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with Jatropha methyl ester and graphene oxide additives","volume":"166","author":"Hassan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.06.020","article-title":"Biodiesels from three feedstock: The effect of graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles diesel engine parameters fuelled with biodiesel","volume":"145","author":"Hoseini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2018.07.062","article-title":"Effects of graphite oxide and single-walled carbon nanotubes as diesel additives on the performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of a light-duty diesel engine","volume":"161","author":"Ooi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Debbarma, S., Misra, R.D., and Das, B. (2020). Performance of graphene-added palm biodiesel in a diesel engine. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy, 1\u201312.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10098-019-01800-2"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4793","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-018-3121-6","article-title":"Studies on effect of graphene nanoparticles addition in different levels with simarouba biodiesel and diesel blends on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of CI engine","volume":"43","author":"Paramashivaiah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2014.11.013","article-title":"Ceiba pentandra, Nigella sativa and their blend as prospective feedstocks for biodiesel","volume":"65","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/S2221-1691(13)60075-1","article-title":"A review on therapeutic potential of Nigella sativa: A miracle herb","volume":"3","author":"Ahmad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Goreja, W. (2003). Black Seed: Nature\u2019s Miracle Remedy, Karger Publishers."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2018). Encyclopaedia Britannica. Black cumin. Black Cumin\u2014PLANT AND SEED, Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, Inc.. Available online: https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/plant\/black-cumin."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.3762\/bjnano.10.91","article-title":"The systemic effect of PEG-nGO-induced oxidative stress in vivo in a rodent model","volume":"10","author":"Ain","year":"2019","journal-title":"Beilstein J. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farade, A.R., Wahab, N.I.B.A., Mansour, D.E.A., Azis, N.B., Banapurmath, N.R., and Soudagar, M.E.M. (2020). Investigation of the dielectric and thermal properties of non-edible cottonseed oil by infusing h-BN nanoparticles. IEEE Access.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2989356"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2547","DOI":"10.1021\/nn900694t","article-title":"Graphene oxide: Structural analysis and application as a highly transparent support for electron microscopy","volume":"3","author":"Wilson","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2010.02.032","article-title":"Effects of butanol\u2014Diesel fuel blends on the performance and emissions of a high-speed DI diesel engine","volume":"51","author":"Rakopoulos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2013.03.054","article-title":"Study on performance and emissions of a passenger-car diesel engine fueled with butanol\u2014Diesel blends","volume":"55","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2016.04.144","article-title":"Performance and combustion characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled by butanol\u2014Biodiesel\u2014diesel blends","volume":"103","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Samaraae, R., Atabani, A.E., Uguz, G., Kumar, G., Arpa, O., Ayanoglu, A., Mohammed, M.N., and Farouk, H. (2017). Perspective of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) as a potential biodiesel feedstock in Turkey: Characterization, engine performance and emissions analyses of butanol\u2014Biodiesel\u2014diesel blends. Biofuels, 1\u201317.","DOI":"10.1080\/17597269.2017.1398956"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2018.07.037","article-title":"A novel study on the effect lemon peel oil as a fuel in CRDI engine at various injection strategies","volume":"172","author":"Ashok","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2018.07.024","article-title":"The effects on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of DICI engine fuelled with TiO2 nanoparticles addition in diesel\/biodiesel\/n-butanol blends","volume":"234","author":"Atabani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hawi, M., Elwardany, A., Ismail, M., and Ahmed, M. (2019). Experimental investigation on performance of a compression ignition engine fueled with waste cooking oil biodiesel\u2013diesel blend enhanced with iron-doped cerium oxide nanoparticles. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12050798"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"129","article-title":"Experimental investigation on direct injection diesel engine fuelled with graphene, silver and multiwalled carbon nanotubes-biodiesel blended fuels","volume":"3","author":"Banapurmath","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Automot. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.07.125","article-title":"Effect of a zinc oxide nanoparticle fuel additive on the emission reduction of a hydrogen dual-fuelled engine with jatropha methyl ester biodiesel blends","volume":"137","author":"Javed","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2020.112748","article-title":"Environment-friendly novel fuel additives: Investigation of the effects of graphite nanoparticles on performance and regulated gaseous emissions of CI engine","volume":"211","author":"Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"583","article-title":"Production of biodiesel from non-edible oil and effect of blending with diesel on fuel properties","volume":"2","author":"Fatah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2017.05.021","article-title":"Influence on the effect of zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles as an additive with Calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester in a CI engine","volume":"146","author":"Nanthagopal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2018.08.026","article-title":"Investigation of the effect of adding graphene oxide, graphene nanoplatelet, and multiwalled carbon nanotube additives with n-butanol-Jatropha methyl ester on a diesel engine performance","volume":"132","author":"Hassan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Gupta, H.N. (2012). Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2016.12.090","article-title":"Performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled by biodiesel-diesel mixtures with multi-walled carbon nanotubes additives","volume":"135","author":"Bady","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2016.06.062","article-title":"An assessment on performance, combustion and emission behavior of a diesel engine powered by ceria nanoparticle blended emulsified biofuel","volume":"123","author":"Annamalai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2015.04.009","article-title":"Experimental investigations on a CRDI system assisted diesel engine fuelled with aluminium oxide nanoparticles blended biodiesel","volume":"54","author":"Aalam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alex. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.09.140","article-title":"Evaluation of oxygenated n-butanol-biodiesel blends along with ethyl hexyl nitrate as cetane improver on diesel engine attributes","volume":"141","author":"Imdadul","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9425","DOI":"10.1021\/ie201023f","article-title":"Effect of n-butanol blending with a blend of diesel and biodiesel on performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine","volume":"50","author":"Altun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2014.09.008","article-title":"A novel soluble nano-catalysts in diesel\u2013biodiesel fuel blends to improve diesel engines performance and reduce exhaust emissions","volume":"139","author":"Mirzajanzadeh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2019.112355","article-title":"Experimental investigation on the performance, combustion and exhaust emission characteristics of a compression-ignition engine fueled with cottonseed oil biodiesel\/diethyl ether\/diesel fuel blends","volume":"205","author":"Yesilyurt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2019.112244","article-title":"A compressive review on the effects of alcohols and nanoparticles as an oxygenated enhancer in compression ignition engine","volume":"203","author":"Nanthagopal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Watson, A.Y., Richard, R.B., and Kennedy, D. (1988). Air Pollution, the Automobile, and Public Health."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.06.006","article-title":"Performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine using graphene oxide (GO) nano-particles additives in biodiesel-diesel blends","volume":"145","author":"Hoseini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2015.05.005","article-title":"Experimental investigation on the effects of cerium oxide nanoparticle on Calophyllum inophyllum (Punnai) biodiesel blended with diesel fuel in DI diesel engine modified by nozzle geometry","volume":"89","author":"Vairamuthu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2017.06.033","article-title":"A novel emulsion fuel containing aqueous nano cerium oxide additive in diesel\u2013biodiesel blends to improve diesel engines performance and reduce exhaust emissions: Part I\u2013Experimental analysis","volume":"207","author":"Khalife","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Zeldovich, Y., Frank-Kamenetskii, D., and Sadovnikov, P. (1947). Oxidation of Nitrogen in Combustion."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2009.08.043","article-title":"Combustion of n-butanol in a spark-ignition IC engine","volume":"89","author":"Szwaja","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soudagar, M., Afzal, A., and Kareemullah, M. (2020). Waste coconut oil methyl ester with and without additives as an alternative fuel in diesel engine at two different injection pressures. Energy Sources Part A Recovery Util. Environ. Eff.","DOI":"10.1080\/15567036.2020.1769775"}],"container-title":["Symmetry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/12\/6\/961\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:35:55Z","timestamp":1760175355000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/12\/6\/961"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,5]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]}},"alternative-id":["sym12060961"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/sym12060961","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-8994"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-8994","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,5]]}}}