{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T06:08:46Z","timestamp":1770530926696,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,10]],"date-time":"2020-06-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1591747200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We evaluated the symmetry of theoretical and experimental analysis of water contamination such as non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) by using amplitude variations with offset analysis (AVO) of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data. We used both theoretical and experimental approaches for AVO responses of GPR to small distributions of contamination. Theoretical modeling is a tool used to confirm the feasibility of geophysical surveys. Theoretical modeling of NAPL-contaminated sites containing wet sand\u2014both with the water and light non-aqueous phase liquid\u2014was applied by keeping in consideration the GPR AVO analysis in acquisition. Reflectivity was significantly altered with the changes in the contents of water and NAPL during modeling. The wet and dry sands introduced in our model changed two major phenomena: one, the wave pattern\u2014implying a slight phase shift in the wave; and two, an amplitude jump with the dim reflection radar gram observed in the model. Experimental data were collected and analyzed; two observations were recorded during physical data analysis. First, relative permittivity confirmed the presence of NAPL in an experimental tank. Second, reflection patterns with jumps in amplitude and changes in polarity confirmed the theoretical investigation. Our results demonstrate that GPR AVO analysis can be as effective for detection of non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPLs) as it has been used to determine moisture contents in the past. The theoretical and experimental models were in symmetry, and both found a jump in reflection strength. The reflection pattern normally jumped with NAPL-intrusion. From the perspective of water contamination, this study emphasizes the need to take into account the impact of GPR AVO analyses along with the expert\u2019s adaptive capacities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym12060991","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,10]],"date-time":"2020-06-10T05:11:46Z","timestamp":1591765906000},"page":"991","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Symmetry between Theoretical and Physical Investigation of Water Contamination Using Amplitude Variation with Offset Analysis of Ground-Penetrating Radar Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5962-4382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrar","family":"Iqbal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}]},{"given":"Zhejiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geo-Information Exploration Science and Technology, Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China"}]},{"given":"Zahid","family":"Masood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne,   Switzerland"}]},{"given":"Wenke","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Geophysical Electromagnetic Probing Technologies of Ministry of Natural Resources, Institute of Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, Chinese Academy of Geological Science, Langfang 065000, China"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Geophysical Electromagnetic Probing Technologies of Ministry of Natural Resources, Institute of Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, Chinese Academy of Geological Science, Langfang 065000, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"J7","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2710183","article-title":"Frequency-dependent attenuation analysis of ground-penetrating radar data","volume":"72","author":"Bradford","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"K47","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2194524","article-title":"Ground-penetrating radar theory and application of thin-bed offset-dependent reflectivity","volume":"71","author":"Bradford","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/S0926-9851(00)00027-6","article-title":"Forensic GPR: Finite-difference simulations of responses from buried human remains","volume":"45","author":"Hammon","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. 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