{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T04:02:06Z","timestamp":1768795326388,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,3]],"date-time":"2021-05-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620000000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["19K15252"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19K15252"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study attempted to discuss the design principles for enhancing usability in terms of asymmetry of mental models between users and designers. If the user model is asymmetrical to the design model, i.e., the degree of agreement between models is low and the user\u2019s mental model is not compatible with the actual system, the user cannot operate the system properly, which may cause errors. The aim of this study was to investigate the characteristics of users who have asymmetrical mental models and identify what such users did not understand. Twenty-four subjects participated in an experiment that involved a digital camera operation task and mental model tests that measure the level of the agreement of the mental model construction in terms of functional and structural models. Initially, the participants were grouped based on mental model test scores: symmetrical mental model group (n = 17) and asymmetrical mental model group (n = 7). Then, the groups were compared in terms of performance and subjective comprehension. The comparison indicated that the symmetrical mental model group performed more quickly and accurately than the asymmetrical group. The results also confirmed that the asymmetrical mental model group had a lower level of comprehension in terms of understanding the device status, detecting and responding to device status changes, and understanding the hierarchical structure of the screen.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym13050795","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,5]],"date-time":"2021-05-05T22:51:42Z","timestamp":1620255102000},"page":"795","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Effects of Asymmetry between Design Models and User Models on Subjective Comprehension of User Interface"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9272-1985","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Toshihisa","family":"Doi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Intelligent Mechanical Systems, Okayama University, Okayama 7008530, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1727(199821)14:1<3::AID-SDR140>3.0.CO;2-K","article-title":"Mental models concepts for system dynamics research","volume":"14","author":"Doyle","year":"1998","journal-title":"Syst. Dynam. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.2117\/psysoc.2010.256","article-title":"Understanding characteristics of the transfer of mental models in the user of electrical devices","volume":"53","author":"Tanaka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychologia"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.5057\/jjske.TJSKE-D-16-00019","article-title":"A Proposal for Measurement Methods of Mental Models using Kappa Coefficient","volume":"15","author":"Mori","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. Jpn. Soc. Kansei Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Kaiho, H., Harada, E., and Kurosu, M. (1991). Cognitive Interface, Shinyosha Publishing. (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Gentner, D., and Stevens, A.L. (1983). Some observations on mental models. Mental Models, Lawrence Elrbaum."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.2307\/2579746","article-title":"Extracting, Representing, and Analyzing Mental Models","volume":"70","author":"Carley","year":"1992","journal-title":"Soc. Forces"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Norman, D.A. (1988). The Psychology of Everyday Things, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Preece, J., Rogers, Y., Benyon, D., Holland, S., and Carey, T. (1994). Human-Computer Interaction, Addision Wesley."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Gentner, D., and Stevens, A.L. (1983). Surrogates and Mappings: Two Kinds of Conceptual Models for Interactive Devices. Mental Models, Lawrence Elrbaum."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1983). Mental Models\u2013Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Interference and Consciousness, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Halasz, F.G., and Moran, T.P. (, January December). Mental models and problem solving in using a calculator. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(86)80039-6","article-title":"The user\u2019s mental model of an information retrieval system: An experiment on a prototype online catalog","volume":"24","author":"Borgman","year":"1986","journal-title":"Int. J. Man Mach. Stud."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Oakhil, J., and Garnham, A. (1996). Applied Mental Models in Human-Computer Interaction. Mental Models in Cognitive Science Essays in Honour of Phil Johson-Laird, Psychology Press."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Jonassen, D.H., and Henning, P. (1996, January 24\u201327). Mental models: Knowledge in the head and knowledge in the world. Proceedings of the 1996 International Conference on Learning Sciences, Evanston, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1985.6313353","article-title":"The role of hierarchical knowledge representation in decision making and system management","volume":"15","author":"Rasmussen","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.90.2.312","article-title":"A split-attention effect in multimedia learning: Evidence for duel processing systems in working memory","volume":"90","author":"Mayer","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/S0883-0355(99)00027-0","article-title":"Multimedia aids to problems-solving transfer","volume":"31","author":"Mayer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-4752(01)00018-4","article-title":"Aids to computer-based multimedia learning","volume":"12","author":"Mayer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Learn. Instr."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"255","article-title":"The Role of a Mental Model in Learning to Operate a Device","volume":"8","author":"Kieras","year":"1984","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kellogg, W.A., and Breen, T.J. (,  1987). Evaluating user and system models: Applying scaling techniques to problems in human-computer interaction. Proceedings of the CHI+GI\u201987 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems and Graphic Interfaces.","DOI":"10.1145\/29933.275647"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"9","article-title":"Mental model formation in users with high and low comprehension of a graphical user interface","volume":"48","author":"Doi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hum. Ergol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ishihara, K., Doi, T., Yanagimoto, S., and Yamaoka, T. (2013). Cognitive Factors Involved in the Ability to Manipulate a Digital Camera, Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-39191-0_63"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"69","article-title":"The proposal of the level of mental model building measurement scale in user interface","volume":"60","author":"Doi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. JSSD"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norman, D.A., and Draper, S.W. (1986). User Centered System Design-New Perspective on Human-Computer Interaction, Lawrence Erlbaum.","DOI":"10.1201\/b15703"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Lei, T., Yang, Y., and Zhang, Y. (December, January 29). The Usability of Multimedia Interface Based on User\u2019s Mental Models. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Artificial Reality and Telexistence\u2014Workshops, Hangzhou, China."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamashita, A.F., Barendregt, W., and Fjeld, M. (2007, January 3\u20137). Exploring Potential Usability Gaps when Switching Mobile Phones: An Empirical Study. Proceedings of the 21st British HCI Group Annual Conference on People and Computer, Lanchester, UK.","DOI":"10.14236\/ewic\/HCI2007.11"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2015.07.241","article-title":"The usability of mobile applications for pre-schoolers","volume":"197","author":"Masood","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forster, Y., Hergeth, S., Naujoks, F., Krems, J., and Keinath, A. (2019). User education in automated driving: Owner\u2019s manual and interactive tutorial support mental model formation and human-automation interaction. Information, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/info10040143"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1002\/1532-2890(2001)9999:9999<::AID-ASI1092>3.0.CO;2-3","article-title":"Assessment of the effects of user characteristics on mental models of information retrieval systems","volume":"52","author":"Zhang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1080\/1463922X.2010.539286","article-title":"A proposal of a user-interface index that corresponds with mental model structural elements","volume":"13","author":"Yamaoka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Theor. Issues Ergon. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-41661-8_8","article-title":"Which design seems easy to use? An analysis of individual differences in mental models","volume":"483","author":"Nishizaki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Affect. Pleasurable Design"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Doi, T., and Yamaoka, T. (2021, May 02). Contribution of the Elements for Structuring Mental Models in User-Interfaces Operation, Consilience and Innovation in Design Proceedings and Program vol.1+2 (Proc. of IASDR 2013). Tokyo, Japan. Available online: http:\/\/design-cu.jp\/iasdr2013\/papers\/1539-1b.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Yamaoka, T. (2018, January 19\u201322). A basic consideration of evaluation method and construction model of mental model. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Kansei Engineering & Emotion Research 2018, Kuching, Malaysia."}],"container-title":["Symmetry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/13\/5\/795\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:56:53Z","timestamp":1760162213000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/13\/5\/795"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,3]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["sym13050795"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/sym13050795","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-8994"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-8994","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,3]]}}}