{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:35:59Z","timestamp":1760236559418,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,11]],"date-time":"2021-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639180800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004515","name":"National University of Malaysia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GUP-2020-015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GUP-2020-015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004515","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The purpose of this numerical research is to assess the evacuation process in a tunnel under the contraflow condition. Numerical simulations utilizing FDS+Evac codes associated with a fire dynamic simulator (FDS) model simulating a fire scenario are used to simulate evacuation and to predict the impact of a 100 MW fire scenario on the occupants inside the tunnel. Traffic and passenger conditions are based on real data from a tunnel in the UK. Two fire loads, 100 MW and 5 MW, are studied to represent an HGV and a passenger car fire. The 100 MW fire source, caused by an unexpected heavy good vehicle (HGV) catching fire, is located in the middle of the tunnel and at 20% of tunnel length to study the effect of fire source location on the usage of emergency exits and tenability thresholds. The dimensions and the inclination angle of the existing roadway tunnel are 1836 m (L) \u00d7 7.3 m (W) \u00d7 5 m (H) and 4%, respectively. It should be noted that the 4% inclination of the tunnel causes asymmetry propagation of smokes thus the visibility of the downstream and upstream from the fire behave differently. The maximum needed time to evacuate using all egress, the amount of fractional effective dose and visibility at the human\u2019s height are analyzed. Simulation results indicate that when a realistic worst-case fire scenario is modeled, all evacuees can survive before the combustion gases and heat influence their survivability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym13122392","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,13]],"date-time":"2021-12-13T01:29:33Z","timestamp":1639358973000},"page":"2392","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Numerical Simulation of the Evacuation Process in a Tunnel during Contraflow Traffic Operations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5805-0479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Razieh","family":"Khaksari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"London Bridge Associates Ltd., Surbiton, London KT6 4TS, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8715-3314","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zambri","family":"Harun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, National University of Malaysia, UKM, Bangi 43600, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Les","family":"Fielding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"London Bridge Associates Ltd., Surbiton, London KT6 4TS, UK"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Aldridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"London Bridge Associates Ltd., Surbiton, London KT6 4TS, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ress.2014.07.007","article-title":"The validation of evacuation simulation models through the analysis of behavioural uncertainty","volume":"131","author":"Lovreglio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Reliab. 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