{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:42:25Z","timestamp":1760143345698,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,31]],"date-time":"2024-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1706659200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009092","name":"University of Alicante","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PC20-01A","GRE 20-07-A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PC20-01A","GRE 20-07-A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009092","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Today, rope access systems (RASs) and fall arrest systems (FASs) incorporate significant technological innovations. This research aims to determine the safest knot to be used in RASs. The most secure knots are those that leave the most resistance in the rope. Static laboratory tests, followed by an extensive statistical analysis of the obtained data, were carried out under controlled conditions. Five types of anchor knots were selected and studied using three rope models with similar diameters, and we analysed the symmetrical versions in the dextrorotational direction. Thirty break tests were performed for each rope model. The total number of breakage tests was 90. The double overhand knot proved to be the safest knot with an average efficiency of 61.82%. A better understanding of the behaviour of knots and their correct use in FASs will be key to accident prevention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym16020167","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,31]],"date-time":"2024-01-31T08:44:06Z","timestamp":1706690646000},"page":"167","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Determining the Safest Anchoring Knot in a Fall Arrest System by Means of Static Tests"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1240-2635","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Ignacio","family":"S\u00e1ez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Building Sciences and Urbanism Department, University of Alicante, Carretera de San Vicente del Raspeig s\/n, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8310-8599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena \u00c1ngela","family":"Carri\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cresmes, Research Group for Testing, Simulation and Modelling Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture, Civil Engineering Department, University of Alicante, Carretera de San Vicente del Raspeig s\/n, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8455-5534","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bel\u00e9n","family":"Ferrer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil Engineering Department, University of Alicante, Carretera de San Vicente del Raspeig s\/n, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7384-957X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Encarnaci\u00f3n","family":"Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Building Sciences and Urbanism Department, University of Alicante, Carretera de San Vicente del Raspeig s\/n, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1224-1867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Francisco","family":"Monge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Statistics, Mathematics and Informatics, Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez, Avenida Universidad s\/n, 03202 Elche, Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2021.105519","article-title":"Economic development and construction safety research: A bibliometrics approach","volume":"145","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, L., Li, R.Y.M., Yigitcanlar, T., and Zeng, H. (2023). Public Opinion Mining on Construction Health and Safety: Latent Dirichlet Allocation Approach. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13040927"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, X.S., Brown, S., and Brooks, R.D. (2021, January 13\u201318). Trends of fatal falls in the U.S. Construction Industry. Proceedings of the 21st Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA 2021), Online.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-74608-7_39"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2017.02.028","article-title":"Fatal falls and PFAS use in the construction industry: Findings from the NIOSH FACE reports","volume":"102","author":"Dong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Dong, X.S., Jackson, R., Varda, D., and Bunting, J. (2022, March 08). Trends of Fall Injuries and Prevention in the Construction Industry. Available online: https:\/\/www.cpwr.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/publications\/Quarter2-QDR-2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Safe Work Australia (2022, March 05). Work-Related Injury Fatalities\/Key WHS Statistics Australia, Available online: https:\/\/www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au\/sites\/default\/files\/2021-10\/Key%20work%20health%20and%20safety%20statistics%20Australia%202021.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ministry of Labor and Social Economy (MITES) (2022, February 08). Occupational Accident Statistics. Available online: https:\/\/www.mites.gob.es\/estadisticas\/eat\/eat20\/Resumen_resultados_ATR_2020.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Health and Safety Executive (2022, January 30). Health and Safety in Construction in Great Britain (HSE). Construction Statistics in Great Britain, Available online: https:\/\/www.hse.gov.uk\/statistics\/industry\/construction.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2018). Personal Fall Protection Equipment-Personal Fall Protection Systems (Standard No. EN-363:2018)."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Carri\u00f3n, E.A., Menchacatorre, P.I., and Garc\u00eda, R.T. (2014). Individual Fall Protection Systems: Legislation, Definitions and Equipment, Publications of the University of Alicante."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"42","article-title":"Some notes on knots","volume":"23","year":"2005","journal-title":"Subterr\u00e1nea"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Guinot, S., and S\u00e1ez, P. (2015). Sistemas de Protecci\u00f3n Individual Contra Ca\u00eddas en Bomberos, Ediciones Desnivel."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Tourte, B., and Marbach, G. (2003). T\u00e9cnicas de Espeleologia Alpina, Ediciones Desnivel."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Sulowski, A.C. (2006, January 14\u201315). How good is the 8 kN Maximum Arrest Force limit in industrial Fall Arrest Systems. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fall Protection\u2014IFPS\u201906, Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"140","article-title":"Acceleration and Deflection Analysis for Class C Edge Protection Systems in Construction Work","volume":"8","author":"Pomares","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Constr. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04019107","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001764","article-title":"Improving Safety, Efficiency, and Productivity: Evaluation of Fall Protection Systems for Bridge Work Using Wearable Technology and Utility Analysis","volume":"146","author":"Zuluaga","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Constr. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020022","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001789","article-title":"Safety Risk Tolerance in the Construction Industry: Cross-Cultural Analysis","volume":"146","author":"Rico","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Constr. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Ashley, C.W. (1944). The Ashley Book of Knots, Doubleday and Company, Inc.. [12th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Marbach, G., and Tourte, B. (2002). Alpine Caving Techniques: A Complete Guide to Safe and Efficient Caving, Speleo Projects. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Turner, J.C., Griend, P.V., and Warner, C. (1996). History and Science of Knot, World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2022, January 31). BEAL. Available online: https:\/\/www.beal-planet.com\/en."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2012). Petzl, la Promesse des Profondeurs, Editions Paulsen."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"MSA (2022, February 08). The Safety Company. Available online: https:\/\/us.msasafety.com\/Fall-Protection\/Rescue-%26-Descent-Products\/FP-Rescue-Ropes\/p\/000230001200001001."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"PETZL (2022, January 28). PETZL-Professional. Available online: https:\/\/www.petzl.com\/GB\/en\/Professional\/Ropes."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-4238-7_55","article-title":"Utilizing Knots to Reduce Dynamic Loads in Fire Service Rope Systems","volume":"1","author":"Boron","year":"2013","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. Soc. Exp. Mech. Ser."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Brown, A. (2022, February 02). The Strength of Knots in Dynamic Climbing Rope. Available online: http:\/\/personal.strath.ac.uk\/andrew.mclaren\/alasdair_brown_2008.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carri\u00f3n, E., Ferrer, B., Monge, J., S\u00e1ez, P., Pomares, J., and Gonz\u00e1lez, A. (2021). Minimum Clearance Distance in Fall Arrest Systems with Energy Absorber Lanyards. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18115823"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez, E., Juli\u00e1n, R., and Reising, M. (October, January 30). Evaluation and analysis of climbing knots. Proceedings of the 13th Argentine and 8th Latin American Congress of Physical Education and Sciences, Ensenada, Mexico. Available online: http:\/\/congresoeducacionfisica.fahce.unlp.edu.ar\/."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1007\/s40870-015-0015-5","article-title":"Feasibility of Knots to Reduce the Maximum Dynamic Arresting Load in Rope Systems","volume":"1","author":"Martin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Dyn. Behav. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/20894","article-title":"Tying a molecular knot with optical tweezers","volume":"399","author":"Arai","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Marbach, G., and Rocourt, J.L. (1980). Techniques de la Sp\u00e9l\u00e9ologie Alpine, Techniques Sportives Appliqu\u00e9es."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/3\/1\/310","article-title":"Localization of breakage points in knotted strings","volume":"3","author":"Pieranski","year":"2001","journal-title":"New J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5437.11a","article-title":"Knotted Fishing Line, Covalent Bonds, and Breaking Points","volume":"286","author":"Stasiak","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Drohan, D. (2022, March 08). Preferred Knots for Use in Canyons. Available online: http:\/\/www.paci.com.au\/downloads_public\/knots\/06_Joining-knots_DDrohan.pdf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02844258","article-title":"An Assessment of the Strength of Knots and Splices Used as Eye Terminations in a Sailing Environment","volume":"9","author":"Milne","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sports Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"563","article-title":"Tensile Strength of Knotted Ropes","volume":"2","author":"Aldazabal","year":"2007","journal-title":"An. De La Mec\u00e1nica De Fract."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Nu\u00f1ez, T. (2011). Los Mejores Nudos de Escalada, Ediciones Desnivel."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Merchant, D. (2007). Life on a Line. The Underground Rope Rescue Manual, Lulu Enterprises, UK Ltd.. [2nd ed.]. Available online: http:\/\/www.lifeonaline.com\/legal."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Diamond, W. (2022, March 08). An Assessment of the Strength of Rope Splices and Knots in Sailing Ropes. Available online: http:\/\/Personal.Strath.Ac.Uk\/Andrew.Mclaren\/William_Diamond_2007.Pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"G\u00f3mez, P. (2016). Breaking Knots, Valencian School of Speleology. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.12693\/APhysPolA.138.404","article-title":"Revision of Commonly Used Loop Knots Efficiencies","volume":"138","author":"Palcek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Pol. A"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Nu\u00f1ez, T. (1999). Something More about Knots, Ediciones Desnivel."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(1999). Personal Protective Equipment for the Prevention of Falls from a Height\u2014Low Stretch Kernmantle Ropes (Standard No. UNE-EN 1891)."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(1995). Fibre Ropes for General Service. Determination of Certain Physical and Mechanical Properties (Standard No. EN 919:1995)."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(1993). Fibre Ropes, Part 3: Man-Made Fibre Rope for Static Life Rescue Lines (Standard No. AS 4142.3)."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2012). Mountaineering Equipment-Dynamic Mountaineering Ropes-Safety Requirements and Test Methods (Standard No. EN 892:2012)."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(1970). Polyamide (Nylon) Mountaineering Ropes (Standard No. BS:3104:1970)."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2004). Mountaineering Equipment. Dynamic Mountaineering Ropes. Safety Requirements and Test Methods (Standard No. BS EN 892:2004)."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"National Fire Protection Association (2011). NFPA 1. Fire Code, NFPA Publications. [2012th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1038\/19935","article-title":"Influence of a knot on the strength of a polymer strand","volume":"399","author":"Saitta","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"353","article-title":"In Failure of firefighter escape rope under dynamic loading and elevated temperatures","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Horn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference on Experimental and Applied Mechanics, Indianapolis, Indiana, 7\u201310 June 2010"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Fontenot, N., Stenvers, D., Gilmore, J., Solomon, A., van Berkel, B., Grabandt, O., and Kong, D. (2009). OCEANS 2009, IEEE."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2005). Textiles\u2014Standard Atmospheres for Conditioning and Testing (Standard No. EN ISO 139:2005\/A1)."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"110","article-title":"Effect of Repeated Loading on Textile Rope and Webbing Characteristics in Personal Equipment Protecting against Falls from a Height","volume":"23","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fibres Text. East. Eur."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2001). Directive 2001\/45\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2001. Amending Council Directive 89\/655\/EEC Concerning the Minimum Safety and Health Requirements for the Use of Work Equipment by Workers at Work, Official Journal of the European Communities."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2024, January 28). Regulation (EU) 2016\/425 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2016 on Personal Protective Equipment and Repealing Council Directive 89\/686\/EEC. Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2016\/425\/oj."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carri\u00f3n, E., S\u00e1ez, P., Pomares, J., and Gonz\u00e1lez, A. (2020). Average Force of Deployment and Maximum Arrest Force of Energy Absorbers Lanyards. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17207647"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2024, January 19). Eurasian Economic Union (EAC). Available online: https:\/\/www.ccis-expertise.com\/en\/eurasian-economic-union-export."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2023, May 08). UIAA 107; Safety Standards. Available online: https:\/\/www.theuiaa.org\/safety\/safety-standards\/."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(1993). Personal Protective Equipment against Falls from a Height Test Methods (Standard No. EN-364\/AC)."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2018). Metallic Materials. Calibration and Verification of Static Uniaxial Testing Machines. Part 1: Tension\/Compression Testing Machines. Calibration and Verification of the Force-Measuring System (Standard No. EN ISO 7500-1:2018)."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160imon, J., and Ftorek, B. (2022). Basic Statistical Properties of the Knot Efficiency. Symmetry, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym14091926"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993700","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.993700","article-title":"Can a chatbot enhance hazard awareness in the construction industry?","volume":"10","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-950X.2013.12076.x","article-title":"Knot Security and Tensile Strength of Suture Materials","volume":"43","author":"Marturello","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Surg."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsurg.2010.06.007","article-title":"Tensile Strength of a Surgeon\u2019s or a Square Knot","volume":"67","author":"Muffly","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Surg. Educ."}],"container-title":["Symmetry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/16\/2\/167\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:52:25Z","timestamp":1760104345000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/16\/2\/167"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,31]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["sym16020167"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/sym16020167","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-8994"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2073-8994"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,31]]}}}